I prowl the woods, both fierce and lean, With golden eyes and coat unseen. Once a ghost upon the land, Now brought back by careful hand. Who am I, wild and free, Yet bound by fate and history?
Many moons ago, for two years during college and one year after, I worked at the Columbus Zoo & Aquarium in central Ohio (for those keeping score at home, that’s Jack Hanna’s zoo. Yes I met him.)
I spent thousands of hours over hundreds of days at that zoo. I got to know every path, every Dippin’ Dots stand, and every habitat under the zoo’s care.
The Columbus Zoo & Aquarium has an incredible collection of creatures (they’re one of the only institutions outside of Florida with manatees). While I was enamored with all of them, my favorite were the Mexican Wolves, a critically imperiled species.
In a place full of more diversity and creatures than I could ever count, the zoo’s Mexican wolves were different. As part of the (American) Association of Zoos and Aquariums’ Species Survival Plan, a nationwide conservation effort. There were excellent educators of the impact one creature can have on an ecosystem, and what can happen when we don’t take care of them.
A Mexican Wolf at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium. Credit: JCaputo via Flickr. CC BY-NC-SA 2.0
A Predator on the Brink
The Mexican wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) is both the rarest and most genetically distinct subspecies of the more well known gray wolf. It is notably smaller than its northern relatives, with adults weighing standing about two feet tallat the top of the shoulder. Despite this (relatively) diminutive stature, the Mexican wolf is an apex predator in its environment, finely tuned by evolution for survival in the rugged, often unforgiving landscapes of the southwestern United States and northern Mexico.
Consider those landscapes for a moment. What does it take for a species already up against the ropes to survive there? What would it take for you to survive there?
You’d have to have exceptional endurance to hunt in vast, open environments. Long, slender legs and a streamlined body would allow you to cover these great distances while tracking prey, often over the course of 30 miles in a single day. You’d require an acute sense of smell and keen eyesight to pick up on the movements of smaller creatures from far away, even in the dim light of dawn or dusk when your prey is most active.
You’d be an expert of efficient thermoregulation, that is, keeping cool in the heat and warm in the cold. And you’d have to be, an expert, when your world ranges from scorching desert heat to bitter mountain cold, these wolves have developed a double-layered coat that provides insulation in winter while shedding excess warmth in summer. The coat’s coloration, a mixture of gray, rust, and buff, serves as excellent camouflage against the rocky and forested landscapes they inhabit.
A Wolf’s Role
It’s old news to you, I know, but it bears repeating. For ecosystems to function, predators must play their part. Like other wolves, the Mexican wolf is a keystone species, regulating prey populations and influencing plant communities. Without them, the system unravels.
The Mexican wolf primarily hunts elk, white-tailed deer, mule deer, and occasionally livestock, but they will also take smaller mammals like rabbits and rodents when such larger prey is scarce. When they hunt, they do so together, as cooperative pack hunters. Their strong social structure is as essential a tool as their razor sharp incisors in felling prey much larger than themselves. Beyond the hunt, these [ack dynamics are critical to their survival—each member has a role, from rearing the pups learning the ropes to experienced hunters leading coordinated chases.
Both on the hunt and at home, communication is central to the wolves’ social structure. Howling serves as both a bonding ritual and a way to locate packmates over vast distances. Body language, like tail positioning and ear movement, helps maintain hierarchy within the group. You may even recognize a few of these traits in your own dog, barking or howling to communicate, using their tail and ears to express emotion, or learning through playful wrestling as a puppy.
Packs are tight-knit, usually number four to six members, though some may grow larger depending on prey availability. They establish territories spanning up to 200 square miles, marking them with scent and vocalizing to warn off intruding wolves and other creatures.
A Mexican wolf and her pup. Image by Bob Haarmans, CC BY 2.0
In the absence of wolves, prey populations, especially elk and deer, explode, stripping vegetation and weakening forests. Overgrazed lands mean fewer young trees, degraded soil, less cover for smaller animals and heightened wildfire risk. This domino effect, known more scientifically as trophic cascade, ripples through the entire ecosystem. Beavers lose the young saplings they rely on for food and dams. Birds struggle to find nesting spots. Streams warm without tree cover, altering aquatic life.
But when wolves return, balance begins to restore itself. Just ask Yellowstone National Park. Wolves keep elk and deer moving, preventing over-grazing in sensitive areas. Carcasses left behind provide food for scavengers, including ravens, eagles, foxes, and even bears. Their presence reshapes the landscape, not just through their actions but through the fear they instill in prey. They don’t just hunt; they change the way the river of life flows.
A Fragile Comeback
Conservation and reintroduction of Mexican wolves has been an uphill, if slightly progressive, endeavor since the first captive-bred wolves were reintroduced into Arizona and New Mexico in 1998.
Ranchers in the area saw them as a renewed threat to livestock, and illegal killings were common practice. Some reintroduced wolves were shot before they had a chance to establish packs. Others were relocated after venturing too close to human settlements and industry.
Populations have grown slowly. From a low of just seven wolves in 1980, there are now about 250-300 Mexican wolves in the wild today. This precarious population is still critically small, vulnerable to disease, low genetic variation, and continued conflict with humans.
Climate change has also complicated things.
Rising temperatures are altering the Mexican wolf’s habitat. More frequent and severe droughts in the American Southwest threaten prey availability, pushing elk and deer into different ranges. Increased wildfires, driven by hotter, drier, and more flammable conditions, destroy the forests that wolves depend on for cover and prey.
Mexican Wolf experimental population area map. Courtesy U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.
Last Word
I know zoos can be complicated, controversial places at times. I’m not really here to weigh in on that. But I think like many things in life, there is great value in the best parts of them. As we all continue to advocate for a less-extractive relationship with the rivers of life beyond our front door, I think the ability to educate, connect, and inspire others to care about the world around them is critically important. I saw the Columbus Zoo do that well time and time again, and I think every time we share a featured creature, post a picture of our gardens, or take someone along for a Miyawaki planting, we do the same.
Brendan Kelly began his career teaching conservation education programs at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium. He is interested in how the intersection of informal education, mass communications and marketing can be retooled to drive relatable, accessible climate action. While he loves all ecosystems equally, he is admittedly partial to those in the alpine.
Meet the aardvark – a one-of-a-kind mammal native only to sub-Saharan Africa.
The aardvark has an unusual hodge-podge mix of features including rabbit-like ears, a pig-like snout, an opossum-like tail, and a long, sticky anteater-like tongue. This creature has large and formidable claws used for digging and defense. Weighing in at 115 – 180 pounds, the aardvark is much heftier than it looks.
Aardvarks inhabit the savannas, arid grasslands, and bushlands of sub-Saharan Africa where there is plenty of their favorite prey, ants and termites. They are solitary and do not socialize with others unless for mating or raising young. They live for about 18 years in the wild and approximately 25 years in captivity.
The aardvark is famous for being the first noun in the English dictionary. The animal goes by many names including Cape anteater and ant bear, but its colloquial moniker, aardvark, is Afrikaans for “earth pig”.
Although the aardvark is an eater of ants, it is not an anteater. Understandably, the comparison comes from its similar appearance and nearly identical diet to the anteater, which leads people to assume they are the same animal. However, the aardvark is its own species entirely, and in fact, it is more closely related to elephants than to anteaters.
Unique Diet
Aardvarks are insectivores that eat ants and termites. They use their keen sense of smell to locate ant nests and termite mounds over great distances. Aardvarks have the highest number of olfactory turbinate bones of any mammal on the planet. An aardvark has about 9 -11 of these specialized bones which help support the olfactory bulb in the brain, where smells are processed. This larger-than-average olfactory system allows the aardvark to track such tiny creatures like ants and termites from far away. They have been observed swinging their heads back and forth close to the ground, much like a metal detector, to pick up a scent.
Once an aardvark locates a termite mound, it uses its claws to break open the cement-hard structure. Its tongue, coated in sticky saliva, slurps up the exposed insects in seconds. The highly adapted tongue of an aardvark can be up to 1 foot long. Over the course of a night, a single aardvark eats over 45,000 termites. Amazingly, all of this is done without chewing.
While aardvarks are classified as insectivores, they make one exception in their diet for a very unique fruit, the aardvark cucumber. This African melon looks similar to a cantaloupe but is grown completely underground. Aardvarks easily dig up the fruit and eat its watery, seed-filled interior. Once the fruit is digested, the seeds are dispersed by the aardvarks that cover their dung in dirt, effectively planting these seeds in the soil with a natural fertilizer. This symbiotic relationship helps propagate the aardvark cucumber, whose existence is entirely dependent upon the aardvark.
The aardvark is regarded as a symbol of resilience in some African cultures due to its unrelenting bravery in tearing down termite mounds. The aardvark has very thick skin which helps avoid injury from hundreds of termite and ant bites. Because of their nocturnal habits and solitary nature, aardvarks are not a common sight during the day. It is said that anyone who is lucky enough to see one is blessed.
Earth Engineer
Aardvarks are adept earth-movers known to create specialized burrows to live in. These burrows provide shelter away from the sun and from predators. Its powerful claws are specially adapted to move massive amounts of dirt in minutes, which helps the aardvark excavate multiple chambers within the den.
Some burrows can be up to 10 feet deep and over 20 feet long. There are multiple entrances to the same burrow so the aardvark has a chance to escape if a predator poses a threat. Aardvarks have been observed to be very cautious creatures and practice an unusual ritual before exiting their abode. The aardvark stands at the edge of its burrow and uses its excellent sense of smell to detect any nearby predators. It listens for danger and emerges slowly. The aardvark then jumps a few times, pauses, and heads out for the night. Because aardvarks are primarily nocturnal, they don’t have much need for vivid sight and are colorblind. Their long ears and nose do the seeing for them.
The physiology of these soil architects may strike some as strange, but it serves a purpose. The odd, arched silhouette of the aardvark is caused by its hind legs being longer than its front, which gives them a stronger stance when digging. This adaptation, combined with their formidable claws and muscular forelimbs, allows the aardvark to dig a hole 2-feet deep in just 30 seconds – much faster than a human with a shovel.
When aardvarks have depleted most of their territory’s termite mounds or ant nests, they must move on to new hunting grounds. Their abandoned burrows don’t stay empty for long and are occupied by a variety of species. Hyenas, wilddogs, warthogs, civets, and porcupines make their homes in aardvark burrows. The aardvark has an incredible impact on its environment by sculpting the very landscape itself and providing shelter for other creatures.
If you want to learn more about how aardvark burrows support other animals, check out this article documenting the one of the first observations of predators and prey cohabitating in the same burrow.
Burrowing away now, Joely
Joely Hart is a wildlife enthusiast writing to inspire curiosity about Earth’s creatures. She holds a Bachelor’s degree in creative writing from the University of Central Florida and has a special interest in obscure, lesser-known species.
Crows, members of the Corvus genus, stand out as some of the most intelligent and adaptable birds on the planet. These corvids include over 40 species, such as the American crow, hooded crow, and fish crow, and they inhabit diverse habitats ranging from dense forests to urban landscapes.
Known for their resourcefulness and problem-solving skills, crows have captivated scientists and observers alike with their remarkable behaviors. Crows continue to push the boundaries of how we understand animal intelligence, with recent studies on their tool use, awareness, and relationship to complex concepts gaining them well-deserved recognition and a place in the conservation conversation.
Crows are a fairly common sight in many parts of the world, with recognizable shiny black feathers and a familiar ‘caw.’ They are ground foragers with an incredibly diverse diet, ranging from insects and fruits to small animals and human food scraps. They tend to be associated with scavenging but are true omnivores, and can benefit soils and ecosystems by helping keep insect populations from surging out of balance. In urban settings, they are involved in flock feeding on human food scraps and garbage, and this adaptability to human environments means certain (though not all) species of crow maintain strong population numbers in the face of decreased access to natural habitat.
Communication and Complexity
While the crow ‘caw’ may seem like a simple call recognizable to many people, crow vocalization turns out to be quite differentiated. It has been discovered that among crows, groups form ‘dialects’ based on region. They also possess remarkable vocal mimicry skills, allowing them to imitate the sounds of other birds, animals, and even human speech. All of this allows the crow to engage in communication, social bonding, and strategic goals of deception and resource acquisition.
These crafty corvids possess a level of intelligence comparable to great apes and human children, allowing them to solve complex problems and even make and use tools. For instance, the New Caledonian crow, widely regarded as the most intelligent species among the corvid family, creates hooks and skewers from twigs to extract insects from crevices, showcasing their ingenuity. Researchers have studied crows’ usage of tools and observed that these birds will not only use pre-made tools or create simple combinations of tools in pursuit of their goal, but create multi-part composite tools, a behavior observed in only a few primates.
Famously, Aesop’s fables summarized long ago, “A thirsty crow wanted water from a pitcher, so he filled it with pebbles to raise the water level to drink.” Though the story is thousands of years old, these behaviors are still being studied and producing new insight today.
Some of the most fascinating recent inquiries into crow intelligence have probed crows’ sense of self-awareness, long-term gratification, playfulness, and their understanding of complex concepts. As a math lover, one of my favorites among these is a unique phenomenon – conceptualization of ‘zero’. While many animals are able to perform basic counting, zero is generally a trickier beast, one that was absent from many ancient human civilizations’ numerical systems. However, crows are among the very few animals that grasp this number.
Additionally, crows exhibit impressive memory skills and can recognize individual human faces, reacting differently to perceived threats than to harmless humans. They are even known for ‘holding grudges,’ or conversely, remembering favorable relationships with people for years at a time. The ability to remember and share information within families and flocks may provide them with a significant evolutionary advantage in protecting themselves from harm.
Birds of a Feather Flock Together
In addition to their intelligence and adaptability, crows exhibit fascinating social behaviors. They often engage in cooperative mobbing to fend off predators, perform elaborate aerial displays to attract mates, and maintain strong family bonds by living in cooperative family groups. While adult crows primarily socialize just with their monogamous mate (with whom they pair for life), young crows stay with their parents for the first two years of life, and juvenile crows live in highly social ‘juvenile gangs.’ One theory into crow intelligence suggests that their ingenuity is due to the relatively long period of time young crows spend with their parents and the learning this enables.
Some crows, like American Crows, are also known to flock in large groups in winter months, both foraging for food and roosting together. These roosts can range from a few hundred to up to two million crows, with some roosts forming in the same general area for well over 100 years. Moreover, crows hold “funerals” for deceased members of their community, demonstrating a level of social complexity often overlooked among animals.
Crows will even form bonds with other animals. Crows in the wild have been observed playing with young wolves, and forming mutual attachments with these other social and intelligent creatures. Of course, there are many stories of the relationships humans have forged with individual crows, forming patterns of exchanging food for gifts or receiving trinkets after showing an injured bird care. One charming crow, Tuck, who has spent his life in a bird sanctuary in Tennessee, shares a moving friendship with his primary human caretaker, and has even become a conservation ambassador:
While many human cultures have depicted crows with respect for their ingenuity, recent trends have given crows a bad rap, primarily for the disturbance they cause to crops (hence the need for ‘scarecrows’). Despite their reputation as pests, though, crows play a crucial role in ecosystems as efficient garden helpers and natural pest controllers. They feast on insect pests like caterpillars and beetles, disperse seeds, and maintain a healthy balance in the garden ecosystem. Some crow species face significant challenges to their survival, such as habitat loss, disease, and predation, and crucial conservation efforts are underway to protect endangered species like the Hawaiian Crow through habitat restoration and captive breeding programs.
Crows have been both feared and revered by humans throughout history, often associated with death, darkness, and supernatural powers. The term “murder of crows” reflects their association with death and darkness in folklore, although alternative names like “horde” or “parliament” better capture their intelligent and social nature without perpetuating negative connotations. And many cultures and people have great respect for the clever crow, with whom we have coexisted for thousands of years. Despite their complex relationship with humans, crows continue to fascinate and inspire awe, challenging our limiting notions of animal behavior.
For a deeper dive into crows and the insights they share on animal intelligence, check out this fascinating video and the sources below:
May we continue to learn from our animal kin,
Maya
Maya Dutta is an environmental advocate and ecosystem restorer working to spread understanding on the key role of biodiversity in shaping the climate and the water, carbon, nutrient and energy cycles we rely on. She is passionate about climate change adaptation and mitigation and the ways that community-led ecosystem restoration can fight global climate change while improving the livelihood and equity of human communities. Having grown up in New York City and lived in cities all her life, Maya is interested in creating more natural infrastructure, biodiversity, and access to nature and ecological connection in urban areas.
A songbird with fearless attitude, the black drongo, or Dicrurus macrocercus, can be found across Southeast Asia. I first encountered this amazing avian when visiting India, where drongos could be seen across the treetops of Delhi and Kolkata. Their variety of calls and distinctive two-pronged tail caught my attention, and the more I learned about these creatures, the more I came to respect their cleverness and adaptability.
Some consider drongos to be a symbol of good fortune. This may be related to their ecological role controlling the population of certain insects that can prove to be major pests in agricultural areas. Whether due to their beauty, their singing talents, or contributions to ecological balance, black drongos’ deserve our respect and high regard.
One of the most amazing characteristics of these songbirds is their brazen behavior. Though they have an average size of about 11 inches (or 28 cm), black drongos don’t shy away from conflict with much bigger neighbors.
During nesting season, when birds of prey pose a threat to drongos’ nests, drongos have been known to band together and fight back. They employ the technique of ‘mobbing’ the predators, gathering in numbers to harass the threat and drive it out of the area. In certain cases, drongos have taken to this behavior year-round, preemptively “cleaning up the neighborhood” before bigger birds have a chance to locate and disrupt their nests.
Naturally, other small birds have come to appreciate this service, and species like bulbuls, orioles, doves, and pigeons tend to nest near drongos to enjoy their protection. One beautiful display of mutualism has been recorded in which a red-vented bulbul fed the chicks of a black drongo. Talk about community building!
As drongos’ forked tails may suggest, these birds are built to be incredibly aerodynamic. They often dart through the air in pursuit of their insect prey, and have been observed on daring escapades through fiery skies, as farmers using seasonal burns on their agricultural fields cause insects in those habitats to flee. The drongos happily browse the feast in these dramatic events, and in general they’re not too picky about how they get their meal.
Black drongos will fly near tree branches to disturb insects and pick them off, or forage for grubs and caterpillars on the ground. They’ll eat cicadas, grasshoppers, ants, wasps, beetles, dragonflies, and more insects, and will even occasionally consume bigger prey like small birds, reptiles, bats, and fish. Living along forest edges, farmland, meadows, wetlands, and fields, black drongos benefit by having a wide diet that can suit their circumstances.
Photo by Maya Dutta
Clever callers
In addition to their flying skills, drongos use their vocal talents to rustle up a good meal. These birds are far from one-note. They have tremendous range in the calls they produce, and have become quite adept in the art of mimicry. Drongos sometimes sound alarms, causing other creatures to flee and abandon their food, leaving it up for grabs.
Fork-tailed drongos (the black drongo’s African cousins) have been observed tricking meerkats in this way, and you can watch their wily ways on BBC Earth:
Black drongos of Asia do the same, imitating the call of the shikra (a small raptor) to scare myna birds away from their meals, and swooping in to enjoy the spoils. Perhaps they aren’t the best neighbors after all…
Drongos’ variety of calls shows just how complex their communication can be. In order to mate, nest, forage, feed, mob, and play, the drongo requires a wide vocabulary, and while its most common sound is a two note ‘tee-hee’, drongos are capable of many more songs and sounds to express themselves. Listen in here:
Drongos demonstrate how using your voice and your talents cleverly can help you adapt to any number of circumstances. On that note, I’ll fly off now!
Maya
Maya Dutta is an environmental advocate and ecosystem restorer working to spread understanding on the key role of biodiversity in shaping the climate and the water, carbon, nutrient and energy cycles we rely on. She is passionate about climate change adaptation and mitigation and the ways that community-led ecosystem restoration can fight global climate change while improving the livelihood and equity of human communities. Having grown up in New York City and lived in cities all her life, Maya is interested in creating more natural infrastructure, biodiversity, and access to nature and ecological connection in urban areas.
What creature preys on ants and other insects, invading their bodies, seizing control of their minds, and killing them off to reproduce, all the while inspiring zombie stories that terrify us humans?
Welcome to Zombie Ant Fungus, or Ophiocordyceps Unilateralis!
Photo from Encyclopedia Britannica
One of the most amazing things about being in touch with the natural world is the uncontained sense of wonder that infuses us as we learn about the incredible range of biodiversity out there to be discovered. My recent pieces on Mantis Shrimp and Ghost Pipes are good examples of diversity and symbiosis, while this curious creature shows off the parasitic side of interspecies relationships. Ophiocordyceps unilateralis, commonly known as Zombie Ant Fungus, is an insect-pathogenic fungus, discovered by the British naturalist Alfred Russel Wallace in 1859, and currently found mostly in tropical forest ecosystems.
The Zombie Ant Fungus is like no other creature I know; it’s like a runaway horror movie that even ants shall encounter with fear, and try their best to avoid. Its story is intriguing and represents scary stuff. Indeed, this strange creature is featured in two books by M. R. Carey called The Girl with All the Gifts and The Boy on the Bridge, as well as in a video game and show, The Last of Us, which recently wrapped up its first season to critical acclaim. In that feature, humans struggle to survive after an infectious fungus turns us into zombies largely in the style of Ophiocordyceps.
Who knew that such an innocent seeming creature could become so devious and troublesome? Is there anywhere for us to hide? We need not worry. This pathogen can’t transfer to us, or at least to do so would take many millions of years. So I guess we can relax…
Photo from Shutterstock
There are some major differences between how the fungus is portrayed in shows like The Last of Us and in real life. Cordyceps does not typically infect other hosts through the mouth, and the infected aren’t connected to each other through a network.
Most importantly, the fungus cannot infect humans, because our body temperatures are too high for most of them. Phew! In fact, people have been eating Cordyceps for centuries now without turning into zombies. It’s a traditional Chinese medicine, used to treat kidney disease and other ailments. So let’s set aside these worries, and get back to the reality of these intriguing creatures.
Photo from the New York Times
A Sinister Cycle
These fungi live in jungle habitats, such as in tropical forests, where a species of carpenter ant, Camponotus Leonardi, lives in the high canopy and has an extensive network of aerial trails. But sometimes the canopy gaps are too far apart and difficult to cross, so the ants’ trails descend to the forest floor where they are exposed to Zombie Ant Fungus (Ophiocordyceps unilateralis) spores.
The spores attach to these ants’ exoskeletons and break through, invading its host’s body as a parasite. Like other fungi pathogenic to insects in the genus Ophiocordyceps, this fungus targets a specific host species, in this case the carpenter ant. However, this fungus may also parasitize other closely related species of ants or other insects, though these come with lesser degrees of host manipulation and reproductive success. Some of this fungus’ subspecies, such as Ophiocordycepssinensis, colonizes ghost moth caterpillars instead of carpenter ants and erupts from their head like a unicorn horn.
Check out the sprouting phenomenon taking place in an infected bullet ant:
As in zombie lore, there’s an incubation period where infected ants appear quite perfectly normal and go about their business undetected by the rest of the colony. First, the spore infects the ant and fungal cells start growing inside its body with no notable effects from the outside. But eventually, the infected ant stops participating in the foraging efforts of the colony and stops communicating well with its nest-mates. Then the ant becomes hyperactive and departs from the daily rhythms of the other ants.
Most carpenter ants, for example, forage during the nighttime, but the infected ant basically becomes active all the time. That’s unusual because social insects like ants usually have something called “social immunity”, where sick members get kicked out of the group to prevent the rest from becoming infected by them. Unfortunately, some ants don’t always employ this mechanism to effectively protect themselves from Ophiocordyceps.
While the infection is 100 percent lethal, the goal of this fungus isn’t to convert all the ants into the walking dead. For ecosystems to stay balanced, these fungi tend to keep host populations in check by usually only infecting a few ants in a local colony at any given time, though they also have been known to wipe out entire colonies of ants at times.
Dead Adult Calyptrate Fly by a fungus of the Genus Ophiocordyceps Photo from Getty Images / iStockphoto
This particular species of Zombie Ant Fungus drops its spores in the jungle on ants and takes sufficient control of them that they leave their nest and fellow ants to climb up off the jungle floor to a height of exactly 10 inches (25 cm) where the conditions are just right for the fungus to thrive and propagate.
The designated victim then attaches to the underside of a leaf with its mandibles while the fungus grows inside its host and sprouts a tiny mushroom-like growth. This fruiting body of fungus eventually distributes its spores to continue this cycle of propagation, infecting more ants in turn in a manner that is capable of infecting entire ant colonies.
Spread through Time and Space
This species shows some morphological variations due to its wide geographic range from Japan to the Americas. This may result from host-specific commitments to diverse species of ants in different areas, and helps avoid subspecies competition by occupying distinct ecological niches.
Photo from Wired
Ophiocordyceps also appears to be an ancient creature. In 2010, scientists identified a 48-million-year-old fossil of a Zombie Ant with a death grip on a leaf, verifying that zombifying fungi have been around for a while. But this fossil didn’t offer hints on how the fungus evolved.
Further work concluded that all Ophiocordyceps species descended from a common ancestor which started out by infecting the larvae of beetles that lived in rotting logs. When the beetle eggs hatched, the larvae crawled around alone inside the log, chewing on wood. When beetle larvae came into contact with a spore, the fungus would then invade the insect’s body to feed on its muscle, killing the beetle without any zombie drama. After that, the fungus would grow its stalk and spread spores around the dead body. Other larvae crawling inside the log were thus infected, prolonging this cycle of life and death.
Schematic representation of the ant behavioral manipulation caused by natural products secreted by Ophiocordyceps unilateralis from Wikipedia
The theory is that millions of years ago, the fungi got picked up by ants that also lived in logs. In their new ant hosts, the fungus had already acquired an ability to feed on muscles, grow stalks and spread.
But these ants brought a new challenge, because, unlike solitary beetles, ants live in crowded nests. Diseases can wipe out an entire colony, so the ants ruthlessly attack any individuals that show signs of sickness. This meant that Ophiocordyceps could not spread the way it had in beetles, just by killing its host and sending out spores. However, by keeping ant hosts healthy enough as they were being parasitized, the invasive fungus could zombify the ant host to move it out of the main nest of ants and climb up a nearby plant, from which it could spread its spores to other potential hosts.
This is how the fungi’s transition to ants set off an evolutionary explosion. Once Ophiocordyceps had evolved to live in one species of ant, it began hopping to other new species. It is also suspected that there are hundreds of other species of Ophiocordyceps still to be discovered, perhaps with a wider range of potentially infectious impact…
Photo from Live Science
Growth by Infection
When the fungus infects a carpenter ant, it grows through the insect’s body, draining it of nutrients and hijacking its mind and behavior. Over the course of a week, it compels the ant to leave the safety of its nest and ascend a nearby plant stem. When this fungus invades the ant, taking over its muscles and mandibles, there is apparently no intervention into the ant’s brain itself.
The invasive fungus forces the ant to permanently lock its mandibles around a major vein on the underside of a leaf to attach itself. The ant then loses control of its mandible and remains fixed in place, hanging upside-down on the leaf. This lockjaw trait is popularly known as the “death grip” and is essential in the fungus’s lifecycle. This “death grip” prevents the ant from falling as it dies hanging upside down, thus enabling the proper growth of the fungus’ fruiting body. The “death grip” is thought to be caused by a secretion of fungal compounds that atrophies the ant’s mandibular muscles, making it impossible for the ant to unclench.
Mandibular “Death Grip” (Photo by Katja Schultz from Flickr)
Once the ant is in place on the leaf’s underside, more fungal mycelia sprout, securely anchoring it to the plant substrate while secreting antimicrobials to ward off any other competitive fungi. Next, the fungus sends a lengthy growth through the ant’s head, growing into a bulbous capsule full of spores on a single, wiry yet pliant, darkly pigmented stalk rising through the back of the ant once it is dead.
This spore-bearing sexual structure appears as a bulge on the stalk, below its tip, which forms the fungus’ fruiting body. As the ant typically climbs onto a leaf that overhangs its colony’s foraging trails, its fungal spores will then rain down upon fellow ants below, ensuring that the cycle continues.
How to Create a Zombie: The View from the Inside
How this fungus takes over its host has been carefully analyzed. Once spores drop onto an ant, they attach to the ant’s exoskeleton and eventually break through it with mechanical pressure and the help of enzymes. Yeast stages of the fungus spread throughout the ant’s body and apparently produce compounds that affect the ant’s behavior such that it exhibits irregularly timed full-body convulsions that dislodge it from its canopy nest, dropping it to the forest floor. These infected behaviors work for the benefit of the fungus in terms of its own growth and transmission, increasing its fitness and survivability.
Photo by Andreas Kay
When the fungus first enters its host, it floats around the ant’s bloodstream as single cells, replicating copies of itself. Then, at some point, these single cells join together by building short tubes, which are only seen in fungi that infect plants. Hooked up together in this way, these cells in tubes successfully communicate and exchange nutrients with each other.
The next step is to invade the ant’s muscles, either by penetrating muscle cells or growing into interstitial spaces between these cells. The result is a muscle fiber encircled and drained by a network of interconnected fungal cells in a manner unique to this species, as shown in this brief simulation that represents the process quite clearly.
Zombies that don’t eat brains?
The Zombie Ant Fungus is often described as a single entity, which corrupts and subverts a host. But this fungus can also be seen as a colony, much like the ants it targets. Individual microscopic cells begin life alone but eventually come to cooperate, fusing into a superorganism.
Together, these brainless cells can take control of a much larger creature and manipulate its behavior. But perhaps surprisingly, they do that without ever physically entering or touching the brain itself, while infiltrating the ant’s body and muscles, including its head. Thus, this fungus can manipulate its host through a very precise sort of chemically-guided muscular control that does not affect the ant’s brain. This makes the intricacy of the fungal invasion even more compelling and disturbing, depending on how aware the ant is of this intrusive occupation.
Photo from Earthly Mission
Maintaining the Life Cycle
It is worth noting that throughout its lifecycle, the fungus must meet unique challenges in its metabolic activities. First, the fungal pathogen must attach securely to the arthropod exoskeleton and penetrate it – while avoiding or suppressing its host’s defenses – and then control its host’s behavior before killing it. Finally, it must protect the ant’s carcass from microbial and scavenger attack so that it can reproduce successfully.
This invasion process, leading up to the host ant’s mortality, takes 4–10 days, and includes a reproductive stage where fruiting fungal bodies emanate from the ant’s head, eventually rupturing to release fungal spores. However, the short viability of the fungal spores presents a challenge. The fungus uses its host’s vitality to sustain the growth of the fungus’s fruiting body and enable successful reproduction. To do so, this fungus fortifies the ant cadaver to prevent its decay, which consequently ensures the prolonged growth of the fruiting body.
But this composite creature of zombie-ant fungus is, in turn and ironically, susceptible to fungal infection itself. This can limit its impact on ant populations, when it might otherwise devastate entire ant colonies. Ophiocordyceps unilateralis suffers from an unidentified fungal hyperparasite, reported in the press as the “antizombie-fungus fungus,” that results in only 6–7% of the primary parasite’s spores being viable, limiting the damage this fungus can inflict on ant colonies. This hyperparasite attacks Zombie Ant Fungus just as the fungal stalk emerges from the ant’s body, thus stopping the stalk from generating and releasing its spores.
This suppressive effect is caused by the weakening of the fungus by the hyperparasite, which may limit the viability of its infectious spores. There are additional species of fungi that can grant beneficial and protective assistance to the ant colony, as well. A complicated picture indeed!
Dr. João Araújo of the New York Botanical Garden and his team discovered two new genera of fungus. (Photos by João Araújo)
For example, two novel lineages of fungi, each belonging to its own genus, were recently discovered infecting a species of Zombie Ant Fungus in Florida. One puts a fuzzy white coating on the Zombie Ant Fungus, while the other is harder to spot, with little black blobs that look like fleas. The fungi attacking the Zombie Ant Fungus don’t zombify their host, but they do feed on its tissues and appear to cause it harm by castrating the fungus so it cannot shoot its spores any longer. Then the attacker proceeds to grow and consume the entire fungus.
Though these new parasites are the first to be seen to infect the Zombie Ant Fungus, there could be others out there. Parasitism is a lucrative form of lifestyle, experts say; it might even be the most dominant one on the planet! (Maybe our politics illustrate that…)
Ants also can protect themselves by grooming each other to remove microscopic organisms that could potentially harm the colony. Consequently, in host–parasite dynamics, both the host and the parasite are under selective pressure: the fungal parasite evolves to increase its successful transmission for reproduction, while the ant host evolves to avoid or resist the infection by the parasite, in this case the Zombie Ant Fungus. And so an evolutionary battle continues…
A fuzzy white fungus grows on top of the parasitic Zombie Ant Fungus (Photo by João Araújo)
The principal carpenter ant hosts of Ophiocordyceps unilateralis have also evolved adaptive behaviors to limit the contact rate between uninfected and thus susceptible hosts and already infected hosts, thereby reducing the risk of transmission to their healthy fellow ants by evolving efficient behavioral forms of social immunity. As mentioned, the ants clean the exoskeletons of one another to decrease the presence of spores which are attached to their cuticles.
These ants also notice the abnormal behavior that indicates when a member of the colony is infected, resulting in healthy ants carrying infected individuals far away from the colony to avoid fungal spore exposure. Furthermore, since most worker ants remain inside the nest boundaries, only foragers who venture outside are at any significant risk of infection.
In addition, the fungus’s principal host species, the carpenter ant (or Camponotus Leonardi) tries to avoid the forest floor as a defense method by building its nests high in the canopy, with a broad network of aerial trails. These trails occasionally must move down to the ground level, where infection and graveyards occur, due to wide canopy gaps difficult for the ants to cross while staying safely high in the forest canopy. When these trails do by necessity descend to the forest floor, their length on the ground is as short as possible, only 10-18 feet (3-5 m) or so before climbing back up into the canopy. This shows that these ants avoid zones of infection wherever they can. This method of defense appears to be adaptive to this specific threat, as it is not observed in undisturbed forests where the Zombie Ant Fungus is absent.
Photo from the New York Times
When Ophiocordyceps unilateralis-infected ants die, they are generally found in regions containing a high density of ants which were previously manipulated and killed, which are termed “graveyards” of 70-100 feet (20-30 m.) in range. The density of dead ants within these graveyards can vary with climatic conditions, where humidity and temperature influence this fungus’s effects on the host population. It seems that large precipitation events at the beginning and end of the rainy season stimulate fungal development, which leads to more spores being released and ultimately to more individual ant hosts being infected and killed.
The Wide World of Insect Parasites
What we have here is a hostile takeover of a uniquely malevolent kind. Enemy forces invade a host’s body and use that body like a walkie-talkie to communicate with its fellows to influence the brain from afar, while exercising a more direct control over the ant’s muscles like a puppeteer. Once an infection is underway, the neurons in the ant’s body that give it control of its muscles start to die, as this fungus slowly takes over, effectively cutting the host ant’s limbs off from its brain, as it inserts itself in that place, releasing chemicals that control the ant’s muscles. After the fungus enters the ant, it propagates its invasive cells until they surround the host’s brain, at which point the fungus secretes compounds and takes over the ant’s central nervous system, enabling it to manipulate the ant to reach the forest floor and climb up the vegetation.
Photo from How Stuff Works
In this way, the ant ends its life as a prisoner in its own body, with its brain still in the driver’s seat while the fungus has seized control of the steering wheel in a cruel prolonging of the ant’s death in an agony of helpless surrender. The fungus survives and propagates successfully at the cost of these ants in this dark drama.
But not only ants can be infected with these creative parasites.
Much like the microbiome in our own guts, insects contain a whole array of fungal species, of which few have been closely studied, much less flagged for causing behavioral manipulations. Some are known, however.
One example is Entomophthora muscae, which literally means “insect destroyer of the fly” in Greek. It causes infected flies to climb a certain height, glue themselves at the mouth to a plant, and assume an abdomen-up “death pose” that’s optimal for spore dispersal. (Watch the flies turn into zombies here.)
And there’s Massospora cicadina, which pumps its cicada hosts full of hallucinogenic drugs and causes part of their abdomens to fall off. The bare-bottomed cicada then wiggles its way towards death – once again in the interest of spore dispersal.
Could this happen to us? Personally, this whole scenario gives me the willies, leaving me surprisingly sympathetic to these victimized ants and other infected insects, while also being enthralled by a sense of wonder about the endless variety of nature’s solutions to the reproductive urge of species to propagate themselves. Perhaps we humans should become more alert to all these striking opportunities for Mother Nature to assert her ultimate dominance over us. Some scientists believe that, by studying this Zombie Ant Fungus, we can learn a lot more about how the brain works – and how it might be taken over, which is surely some food for dystopian thought.
Photo from Utrecht University
Medicinal Properties
Ophiocordyceps are known in the pharmaceutical world to be a medically important group. These Zombie Ant Fungi (Ophiocordyceps unilateralis) and related species are known to engage in an active secondary metabolism to produce antibacterial substances that protect the fungus-host ecosystem against further pathogens during fungal reproduction.
Because of this secondary metabolism, chemists who study natural products have taken an interest in this species, discovering small molecule agents of potential interest for use as human anti-infective and anticancer agents. These natural products are reportedly being investigated as potential leads in discovery efforts toward the treatment of immune diseases, cancerous tumors, diabetes and high cholesterol levels.
Another species of fungus, Ophiocordycepssinensis, already mentioned above as a parasitic fungus-caterpillar husk combination, is prized in traditional Tibetan and Chinese medicine as an immune booster, cancer treatment, and aphrodisiac.
Moreover, red naphthoquinone pigments produced by Ophiocordyceps unilateralis are used as a dye for food, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical manufacturing processes. Curiously, naphthoquinone derivatives produced by the fungus also show a red color under acidic conditions, and a purple color under basic conditions. These pigments are stable under a wide variety of conditions as well as not being toxic, which makes them applicable both for food coloring and as a dye.
These attributes also make it a prime candidate for antituberculosis testing in TB patients, by alleviating symptoms and enhancing immunity joined with other chemotherapy drugs. So even this seemingly-nasty creature has some benefits for us humans, once we are able to look beyond its fearsome characteristics.
But this is so generally true of the wondrous variety of nature’s creatures such as featured in this series. We look at them through our human eyes, asking what they can do for us, when the whole natural world is swimming along quite well without our help or needing us for anything. The whole system should have our respect, just for including us in its amazing complexity of life forms and how it all works.
So here’s to a totally infectious and all-consuming curiosity!
When creatures possess a defense mechanism capable of hurting us (like a sting), we categorize them as ‘dangerous.’ When they look differently than we do, we categorize them as ‘strange,’ and when they get attracted to man-made cities or agricultural fields due to the buffet of food we lay out for them, we categorize them as a ‘nuisance.’ When it comes to wasps, we call them all the above.
Whenever a creature has a negative reputation, people wonder, “Why do we even need them? Can’t we just get rid of them?” It’s a painful reminder of the Ego mindset, the one that sets us above other species. But if we take a moment to learn about other creatures, especially the ones we consider “pests,” we soon move towards an Eco mindset. We begin to realize that all species are important for balancing Earth’s ecosystems, and that each individual brings something unique and irreplaceable to this planet. When we embody the Eco mindset, we no longer see humans as dominant, but as equal participants in nature’s systems.
Wide Range
The term ‘wasps’ includes a variety of species that are generally separated by their behavior (and not all of them are yellow and black – in fact, only about 1% of wasps sport those colors). Social wasps, such as yellowjackets and hornets, live in colonies with hierarchies similar to bees and ants while solitary wasps, such as potter wasps, do not. Social wasps start a new colony every spring. Each colony begins with a queen, and she will raise a few worker wasps to enlarge the nest and bring food. Once the nest is spacious enough, the queen will lay eggs, and by the end of the summer there will be thousands of colony members. Throughout autumn, all wasps will perish except for a few new queens. Over the winter, this new set of royalty will find shelter in a fallen log or an abandoned burrow, and when spring returns they will venture out to create new colonies.
Wasps, unlike honeybees, cannot produce wax. To build nests, most species create a paper-like material out of wood pulp and shape the material into cells perfect for rearing. The manufacturing process involves gathering wood fibers from strips of bark, softening the wood by chewing and mixing it with saliva, and spitting it back out to form the cells. Some species, like Potter Wasps, prefer to design nests from mud.
Theory has it that 2,000 years ago, a Chinese official named Cai Lun invented our modern use of paper after watching wasps build a nest in his garden. So next time you read a book, write a note, or receive one of our letters in the mail, you can thank wasps for their ingenious skills! Although many of us may not enjoy having a wasp nest in or near our home, it’s best to leave them alone when possible. Remember that a colony only lasts for a season, and once the wasps leave you can remove the remaining nest. If you need more convincing for leaving wasp nests intact, keep reading to learn how these creatures contribute to the environment.
Work-oriented
Despite the lack of recognition, wasps contribute to man-made gardens and agricultural fields by eating other ‘pests,’ or insects, that harm crops. Their wide-ranging diet and wide geographical range (they exist on every continent except Antarctica) means they contribute to human food sources worldwide. Wasps eat flies and grasshoppers, and will feed aphids to their growing larvae. Some also eat nectar, making them pollinators. Around the world, many farmers consider them essential for their food-production methods. When it comes to food security, we can thank wasps for looking after our crops.
I recently had my first fig, grown organically without any pesticides or chemical fertilizers, ever. It was delicious, and when I asked the manager of Sarvodaya Farm for another, we began to discuss the important role of wasps in fig reproduction.
Although figs are considered a fruit, they are actually an inverted flower. The fig blooms inside the pod, rather than outside, and so it relies on insect pollination to reproduce. It takes a special pollinator to crawl through a small opening and into the fig’s pod to bring the flower its much-needed pollen. Wasps like to lay their eggs in cavities, so they developed a mutually beneficial (or symbiotic) relationship with fig trees. Wasps get a home protected from predators to raise their young, and figs get to reproduce.
Some species of wasps have developed a similar mutualistic relationship with orchids. The extinction of wasps would not only be detrimental for figs, orchids, and other plants that rely on insect eaters or pollinators, it would also be tragic for the many organisms that eat those plants (which, as a new fig fanatic, now includes me).
My first fig ever, from Sarvodaya Farms, where I learned about the mutually beneficial relationship between figs and wasps
Warriors of disease
In case the invention of paper, crop protection, and pollination were still not enough to impress you, one species of wasp found in Brazil also produces a toxin in its venom that contains cancer-fighting properties. Even the substance that enables some wasps to kill larger prey contains healing properties.
By writing about creatures a lot of people see as ‘pests,’ I hope to do my part in speaking against the way we view and treat other animals. I also hope these stories encourage you to take the time to learn from our non-human neighbors. Cai Lun demonstrated the incredible tools we can design when we look to nature for inspiration, a practice known as biomimicry. The solutions are all around us, but it’s up to us to be still, inquisitive, and open-minded, and to let nature show off her magic.
Wishfully yours,
Tania
Tania graduated from Tufts University with a Master of Science in Animals and Public Policy. Her academic research projects focused on wildlife conservation efforts, and the impacts that human activities have on wild habitats. As a writer and activist, Tania emphasizes the connections between planet, human, and animal health. She is a co-founder of the podcast Closing the Gap, and works on outreach and communications for Sustainable Harvest International. She loves hiking, snorkeling, and advocating for social justice.
"European hamster at a city park" by Ivan Radic is licensed under CC BY 2.0.
Which keystone species creates intricate burrows, is aggressive towards its own kind, and hibernates from October to May?
The European Hamster!
European hamster at a city park (Photo by Ivan Radic licensed under CC BY 2.0)
Did you know that there are multiple species of hamster in the wild? I didn’t know this until recently, when I stumbled upon a BBC Earth video of a European Hamster foraging for food in a graveyard. Having only ever been exposed to domesticated hamsters, I was fascinated by this creature and eager to learn more about it.
Burrow into the Basics
The scientific name for the European Hamster is Cricetus cricetus. These furry creatures have a small, ovalish body covered in reddish-brown fur, with the exception of white fur on their face and the side of their body. Quite small in size, European Hamsters typically weigh about 12 – 15 ounces and are about 8-9 inches in length (just a bit bigger than the average human hand!).
In terms of geography, this solitary species is native to Central and Eastern Europe, hence its name. They inhabit steppe and grassland regions that are lush with greenery on relatively flat land.
A Life Well-Lived
The European Hamster has a unique mating process. During the mating season between March and May, females engage in a ritual in which they run in a figure-8 pattern to attract their mate. Males, in turn, will chase the females during this ritual while making a special mating call.
After successful mating with several males, a female’s pregnancy will last about 18 – 21 days and results in about 3 – 7 hamster pups. Females are the primary caregivers to their pups, as males are relatively hands-off in the upbringing of their young. They typically nurse the pups for about a month, or 30 days. The European Hamster has an impressive lifespan among small rodents – it can live up to 8 whole years!
Settling in for Winter
Hibernation is an important part of the European Hamster’s key to a long life. They typically rest from mid-October to mid-March in a deep (2 meter) underground burrow. During hibernation, they wake up about every week or so to get a quick snack before falling back into rest.
Their burrows play a vital role in the European Hamster’s daily life. These burrows exist deep in the ground and have a variety of chambers for specific uses, like food storage.
European Hamster burrow (Photo by Bas Kers (NL) is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)
With a healthy appetite, the European hamster loves to eat grasses, seeds, grains, roots, fruits, legumes, and occasionally some insects or insect larvae. They might often be seen spending the day packing their roomy cheeks full of food to bring back to their food storage chamber to prepare for hibernation.
A Temperamental Creature
European Hamsters aren’t the most friendly of creatures, possibly least of all towards their own kind. They mark their territory with secretions, and when they come into contact with another member of their species, they may act aggressively. They have also been known to attack humans when approached by farmers, who may view the species as harmful to their agricultural operations.
European Hamsters deserve particular recognition for their role as a keystone species. They play a crucial role in dispersing seeds throughout the European grassland and steppe ecosystems that they inhabit. They also contribute to the food web by primarily consuming producers (i.e., plants & plant products), and by serving as prey to a host of predators including birds, foxes, weasels, dogs, cats, badgers, and more.
One Keystone Species Affects the Entire Ecosystem
Unfortunately, this important keystone species is currently critically endangered due to a number of factors. According to Animal Diversity Web, “European hamsters have been hunted or sold for their pelts. They also have been used for cancer research, due to their exposure to pesticides and air pollution in urban settings.”
Luckily, there are rehabilitation and reintroduction efforts underway to protect this valuable keystone species and the ecosystem it helps to support. You can learn more about one such project in Khotyn National Park, Ukraine by clicking here:
For all keystone species, Abby
Abby Abrahamson is a writer, activist, and educator with a passion for community-led biodiversity and climate solutions. As a graduate of sociology and environmental studies, she appreciates the intersectionality of our challenges of climate justice, conservation, and regeneration. Now a Teacher Naturalist with Mass Audubon, Abby formerly worked with Bio4Climate on communications, college outreach, and community engagement. She has also been involved in Jane Goodall’s Roots and Shoots, an organization that helps empower young people to work on environmental, conservation, and humanitarian issues.
The Banded Mongoose is a small mammal with a mass of approximately ≤2kg (or 4 lbs) found in (and indigenous to) various parts of Africa. While most other mongoose species live a solitary life, the banded mongoose is gregarious living in groups of approximately 5-40 individuals with at least one breeding male and female. They are named so due to the black stripes across their greyish-brown dorsal area (back) while their ventral area (chest and stomach) is lighter than other parts. This species is commonly known for its ability and behavior to attack, kill, and eat snakes – even venomous ones!
Banded mongooses are mostly found occupying covered areas like savannahs, open forests, and grasslands for vigilance. They sleep and nurture their young in dens such as abandoned termite mounds, buildings, and even under bridges. By possessing short muscular limbs with strong claws, banded mongooses can dig to find food and get creative at creating and modifying their dens. Because they live in large groups as compared with other mongooses, their burrows have many entrances to ensure their escape during an attack and for sufficient ventilation. Despite having such nice dens, they are not sedentary to the specific den but rather frequently move from place to place every few days to avoid and distract their enemies. However, they can return to their favorite den after a certain time. In addition, their body color allows them to blend with several habitats and hence ensures their safety.
Like other animals, banded mongoose adults, especially males, are responsible for the safety of the whole group. Unlike many other animals, all adult members are fully responsible for raising their young who are born synchronously (all matured female members get pregnant and give birth at the same time). Having muscular limbs, banded mongooses can stand by using their hind limbs just like their cousins (meerkats) to ensure the area is safe.
These animals also exhibit altruistic behaviours whereby adults are ready to give up their life for the safety of the group. They were recorded standing and fighting against lions, birds of prey, and other animals, and while doing so other group members evacuated from the area. Additionally, since they are small in size, they move in groups and close to each other so that they may be seen as one large animal. And as they move, the young ones are located in the middle and the adult ones around them.
Diet and behavioral adaptation
The banded mongoose is a meso-carnivore with a diet consisting primarily of invertebrates such as beetles, millipedes, scorpions and others. Nevertheless, they also eat vertebrates such as snakes, rats, amphibians, mice, young birds and eggs. And in the case of plants, they eat wild fruits (if they’re available). Normally, they move together while locating the food area but each member finds and eats its food. In urban areas, they are mostly found around damp areas during their mealtime because there is plenty of food there, and then they rest in the covered areas mostly at noon to avoid the day heat.
On other hand, banded mongooses cope with food problems by using different symbiotic relationships with other animals like birds, warthogs (watch the video below to see this in action), elephants, and others (see more from attached YouTube links in the References). In this way, they become more successful in foraging and thriving in nature. They also use other animals, especially birds, to be alerted of various threats around them.
Though they are social animals, banded mongooses also exhibit inter-group territorial behaviour and their territories are marked with various scents, especially urine. Not only are territories scent-marked but so are group members. This is well seen when new pups are taken out for their first foraging and adults urinate over the young ones. When two different groups meet, they normally fight and the winning group takes over the area that they fought for. However, during the fight, some mature males and females from each group may mate.
Communication
Banded mongooses mainly communicate through sounds and scents. They possess various sound pitches, each with a different meaning and message to other members. They also developed anal and cheek glands which assist in the marking of their territory and young. They have a well-developed sense of smell, which they use to detect food.
Threats
Currently, banded mongooses are not faced with any critical danger and are listed as a“Least Concern” species due to their large population number and distribution in most parts of Africa. But this does not mean they don’t need any concern at all. I found some of them died in road accidents, and for those in urban areas most people used to attack them. Remember, even extinct species were once “Least Concern” and where are they now? Therefore, let’s give attention to every species in the world before their situation becomes worse.
Lesson to humanity
From such a small animal, we may think that there is nothing to gain, but there is a lot to learn from it. Banded mongooses, as said before, are ready to sacrifice their safety and even life just to make sure their groups are safe. This act shows love for others, something which nowadays very few people can do to others regardless of whether the one in need is their relative or not. I also like the way they raise their family. All group members are fully responsible for that, and if people were to do the same, there would be no street children and other problems also could be solved.
This lesson shows how we can learn from banded mongooses, but it is not just this species that we can learn things from. The whole of nature provides us with enough knowledge, materials and services that are essential for our survival. Therefore, let’s love nature and put our individual or organizational efforts into conserving it to ensure its natural existence lasts and more generations to come will continue to gain what we are gaining now.
Ladybugs, or beetles of the family Coccinellidae, are small, often colorful rounded insects beloved by children’s rhymes and gardeners alike.
Ladybugs are thought to be a sign of luck in many cultures and urban myths. Whether it’s because of their cuteness or their supposed powers of good fortune, people often hold ladybugs as an exception to their aversion to insects. Perhaps the lovely ladybug can pave the way to a more widespread appreciation for insects and their importance in the web of life.
There are a variety of superstitions or myths around ladybugs, as people of different cultures have developed different takes on what kind of luck this little critter brings. Some view ladybugs as portents of love, and say that the redder they are the more luck they bring. Others say that it’s the number of spots that count – predicting the number of years of good luck you’ll have, or the number of months until your greatest wish comes true, depending on whom you ask.
In Norway, it’s said that if two people catch sight of a ladybug at the same time, they will fall in love. Whether ladybugs are said to bring luck in love or in the year’s coming harvest, it’s widely believed that killing a ladybug confers bad luck, so steer clear!
In all likelihood, ladybugs have become associated with luck because of the very real help they provide to farmers and growers. Ladybugs prey on aphids, mealybugs, and other insects that can damage crops by latching on and sapping them of their nutrients. While a number of artificial pesticides can be used to control such problems, these dangerous chemicals often have unintended consequences, harming not only the insects they target, but also killing beneficial insects, running off and seeping into groundwater, poisoning soil, and altering ecosystems. Ladybugs provide a natural alternative to chemical pesticides because they target the pests specifically, leaving plants, other insects and animals, and humans all unharmed.
Ladybug larvae feast on aphids, mealybugs, and other soft-bodied insects, and can consume up to 50 aphids a day. They continue to maintain this diet in their pupal and adult forms, and may eat up to 5000 insects in a lifetime. Even through metamorphosis, some things never change!
Check out this short video showing the life cycle of the ladybug:
A diverse family
Also known as “ladybirds” or “lady beetles”, ladybugs are found pretty much everywhere around the globe, and there are over 5000 different species of them. While ladybugs (at least here in the Northeast US) are famous for sporting a pattern of red shell with black spots, they can actually have a variety of colors and patterns.
Their bright color and patterning signals to predators that they should stay away, or face a very disappointing meal. Indeed, when under threat, ladybugs release a distasteful fluid from their joints. As is often the case with many other familiar plants and animals, these insects are more than meets the eye.
Ladybugs are a great example of a creature that is beloved for its contributions to its ecosystem, enabling plant life and complex networks of creatures to thrive. When we pay attention to the way other organisms help out in their own habitats, we come to realize that you don’t need luck when you have healthy ecosystems. By using natural means of pest control and working with other life forms to keep systems in balance, we can make our own good fortune.
Fingers crossed,
Maya
Maya Dutta is an environmental advocate and ecosystem restorer working to spread understanding on the key role of biodiversity in shaping the climate and the water, carbon, nutrient and energy cycles we rely on. She is passionate about climate change adaptation and mitigation and the ways that community-led ecosystem restoration can fight global climate change while improving the livelihood and equity of human communities. Having grown up in New York City and lived in cities all her life, Maya is interested in creating more natural infrastructure, biodiversity, and access to nature and ecological connection in urban areas.
