Creature: Grassland Inhabitants

Featured Creature: Wild Boar

Anastasiya Dalenka via Unsplash

What creature has a nose like a bloodhound, locks or releases carbon into the soil based on where it lives, and was caught on camera freeing one of its own from a trap?

The wild boar! (Sus scrofa)

Featured Creature: Wild Boar
Anastasiya Dalenka via Unsplash

This week, Bio4Climate intern Eleanor Downey, a student at Bennington College in Vermont, takes us on a deeper dive to meet the ancestors of a creature she’s been fascinated with since she was little. Her love of pigs led her to investigate the wild boar and its relationship to the ecosystems where it lives.

Smart, Social, and Sympathetic

Wild boars live in sounders, tight-knit groups that are built around a sow and her litter. The adult males are usually solitary, except during breeding seasons. As nocturnal creatures, scientists have had a harder time studying them in the wild, but what they have learned is pretty cool!

In 2021, researchers recorded what is probably the first documented case of same-species rescue behavior by a wild boar. An adult female worked the wooden locking mechanism of a cage trap to free two juveniles caught inside. This kind of rescue behavior has only been documented in a few species. The female reportedly showed signs of distress while she worked, which has researchers wondering if empathy was part of what drove her.

Boars communicate through vocalizations, body gestures, and snout nudges. They learn quickly and have adapted to living near humans by shifting their schedules to avoid them, settling into smaller territories, and not reacting to nearby disturbances.

Powerful Sense of Smell

The wild boar’s nose is built for detection. It carries a number of olfactory receptor genes, traits that haven’t been bred out even in their domesticated pig descendants. Boars depend on their strong sense of smell for almost everything they do, whether it’s finding food, recognizing family members, or sensing potential mates. It’s also what makes them so good at finding truffles buried up to three feet underground, fungi that no other creature except a few dog breeds can find. Because the truffles are buried at that depth, boars are an important way that their spores travel through a forest at all, carried off in droppings after a good night of foraging.

Haberdoedas via Unsplash

The Dirt on Wild Boars

In their native habitat across Europe and Asia, wild boars shape grasslands like bison. As they root in the ground for food, they disturb topsoil, aerate it, and open up microhabitats where new seeds can take hold.

Their rooting impacts carbon in the soil, but in different ways depending on whether they’re in their native ranges or not. As they dig, boars mix organic matter from the forest floor with the mineral soil underneath. One 2021 study found this activity functions to redistribute carbon within the soil instead of releasing it, making the buried carbon more stable over time. Another study showed that boars living and rooting outside their native ranges disturb tens of thousands of square kilometers of soil and release millions of metric tonnes of CO2 a year. Regardless of location, it is clear that wild boars intentionally mix forest soils at scale. If it happens in their native landscapes, the soil has evolved to benefit from the disturbance. In other places, the impact is very different.

Are Boars an Invasive Species or Not? It Depends

Outside their native area, wild boars can cause problems. They have big appetites and their numbers grow quickly, making them invasive in a lot of places they’ve expanded to. One study using trail camera surveys found 26 percent less biodiversity in areas with wild boars than in areas without them. They eat just about anything that fits in their mouths. Add that to all the digging they do, and they can cause real damage. They can reshape wetlands, changing the natural topography, damaging flood plains, and altering how water flows and pools.

One of the most interesting outcomes of my exploration into boars is that the same traits that make wild boars important for climate resilience in their native habitats make them destructive elsewhere. The same animals showing the same behaviors have a completely different climate impact depending upon where they live.

Ellie Downey is a college student studying Literature and visual arts at Bennington College. She has worked primarily in the visual art sphere in the past, and is currently interning with a nearby city’s Public Arts and Culture department. In working with Biodiversity for a Liveable Climate writing Featured Creature articles, Ellie endeavours to combine her lifelong love of animals with her interest in writing.

Sources

  • Masilkova, M., Ježek, M., Silovský, V., Faltusová, M., Rohla, J., Kušta, T., & Burda, H. “Observation of rescue behaviour in wild boar (Sus scrofa).” Scientific Reports, 11, 16217 (2021)
  • Allwin, B., Swaminathan, R., Mohanraj, A., Suhas, G. N., Vedaminckam, S., & Kumar, M. “The Wild Pig (Sus scrofa) Behavior – A Retrospective Study.” Journal of Veterinary Science & Technology 7:333 (2016)
  • “Wild boar in the city: Phenotypic responses to urbanisation.” Science of the Total Environment (2021)
  • Podgórski, T., et al. “Spatiotemporal behavioral plasticity of wild boar (Sus scrofa) under contrasting conditions of human pressure: primeval forest and metropolitan area.” Journal of Mammalogy, 94, 109–119 (2013)
  • “Wild Boar Proves High Tolerance to Human-Caused Disruptions: Management Implications in African Swine Fever Outbreaks” (2024)
  • Groenen, M. A. M., et al. “Analyses of pig genomes provide insight into porcine demography and evolution.” Nature, 491 (2012)
  • Piattoni, F., et al. “Interrelationships between wild boars (Sus scrofa) and truffles.” True Truffle (Tuber spp.) in the World: Soil Ecology, Systematics and Biochemistry. Cham: Springer International Publishing (2016)
  • “Mycophagy by invasive wild boar (Sus scrofa) facilitates dispersal of native and introduced mycorrhizal fungi in Patagonia, Argentina.” Fungal Ecology, 26, 51–58 (2017)
  • Don, A., Hagen, C., Grüneberg, E., & Vos, C. “Bioturbation by wild boar increases the stability of forest soil carbon.” Biogeosciences, 16, 4145–4155 (2019)
  • O’Bryan, C. J., Patton, N. R., Hone, J., Lewis, J. S., Berdejo-Espinola, V., Risch, D. R., Holden, M. H., & McDonald-Madden, E. “Unrecognized threat to global soil carbon by a widespread invasive species.” Global Change Biology, 27(14), 3195–3196 (2021)
  • Grunwald, S., et al. “Wild boar (Sus scrofa) has minor effects on soil nutrient and carbon dynamics” (2023)
  • Ivey, M. R., Colvin, M., Strickland, B. K., & Lashley, M. A. “Reduced vertebrate diversity independent of spatial scale following feral swine invasions.” Ecology and Evolution (2019)
  • Risch, D. R., Ringma, J., & Price, M. R. “The global impact of wild pigs (Sus scrofa) on terrestrial biodiversity.” Scientific Reports, 11(1) (2021)

Featured Creature: Patagonian Mara

A Patagonian mara photographed in Mendoza, Argentina. Vicente Pantoja via iNaturalist (CC BY-NC)

What animal can outrun an Olympic sprinter, cares only for its own young despite living in communal dens, and looks like a cross between a rabbit and an antelope?

The Patagonian mara! (Dolichotis patagonum)

Featured Creature: Patagonian Mara
A Patagonian mara photographed in Mendoza, Argentina. Vicente Pantoja via iNaturalist (CC BY-NC)

One of my favorite internships was doing photography and videography at the Smithsonian’s National Zoo in Washington, D.C. during the summer of 2018. I took tons of photos and recorded some videos of the zoo’s animals to use for social media posts and promotional e-mails for the Friends of the National Zoo (FONZ). One day, I found a species that piqued my curiosity: rabbit-like animals with long legs, compressed feet, and a short, hairless tail. I had never heard of maras before, and, eager to learn more, I took a collection of photographs of these easygoing mammals.

Looks Like a Rabbit, Runs Like an Antelope

The Patagonian mara is found in central and southern Argentina, ranging approximately from 28°–50°S latitude. They typically inhabit areas with plenty of shrub cover, such as scrublands and grasslands with a good deal of open space. They have also been found in areas of overgrazed and barren soils within the biome of the Monte Desert, forests in the species’ furthest reaches in northwestern Argentina, and in the sandy, low-shrub habitat within the Valdes Peninsula of southeastern Argentina.

Adapted for a life of running along open plains and steppes, Patagonian maras have long legs, reduced clavicles, and well-developed sensory organs, all of which make them capable of running and communicating across these vast, open habitats. They have smaller collarbones that increase their flexibility and stride lengths, making them efficient and fast runners. Mara are the fastest rodents on the planet, reaching speeds up to 45 miles per hour (72 km/hr).

The Need for Speed? Efficiency and Survival

The Patagonian mara is primarily diurnal, or most active during daylight hours, especially in the cooler hours of the mornings and late afternoon. They will spend nearly half of the day feeding on green vegetation and fruit. Patagonian maras’ daily rhythms shift and relate to environmental conditions such as precipitation, light, relative humidity, and temperature to balance energy use, water loss, and risk of predation in their dry, open habitats. Mara become especially active after periods of rain, as precipitation promotes fresh vegetation and lowers the temperature of the area.

The risk of predation is 24/7, but daytime activities increase their survivability. Mara possess keen vision during the day but not at night. They are hunted by cougars, culpeo foxes, birds of prey, Geoffroy’s cats, and lesser grisons (a type of mustelid). Mara predators are fast, but the mara is faster.

Headshot of a captive Patagonian mara at the Smithsonian’s National Zoo, Washington, D.C. Image credit: Sienna Weinstein

Communication and Breeding: A Complex, Communal Affair

The social organization of the Patagonian mara is a unique combination of monogamy (one male-one female breeding pairs) and communal breeding. Mated pairs breed together either on their own or alongside other pairs in warrens shared by up to 29 breeding pairs. Maras breed, at least in southern Argentina, from August to January, with most births occurring in September and October after a gestation period of 100 days. The birthing period comes before the summer dry season and after the plentiful rains of winter, ensuring there is plenty of green growth to feed upon when the next generation arrives.

Communal living provides protection from predators, with larger groups having higher infant survival rates compared to smaller groups or single pairs. Litters from one to up to 29 pairs are grouped together, and breeding pairs visit the den in cycles as other parents circle the den. Females don’t typically cooperate in raising young, although some pups may try to steal milk from a nursing mother other than their own. Young mara remain near the den for the first three weeks of life, grooming one another, playing, and huddling.

Mara communication is complex and varied. While grazing or slowly moving about, maras make numerous vocalizations. If a mara is seeking contact, s/he emits an inflected “wheet”. When following another individual, a mara will make a low, repetitive grunt. When feeling threatened, maras will again emit low grunts, but also chatter their teeth. Even grooming is a noisy affair, with a series of short grunts being emitted. Scent marking is used by maras for complex and intense social interactions, especially during the breeding season. These involve spraying urine on one another, and rubbing the anogenital region on the ground.

A Race Against Change and Extinction

Mara contribute to healthy vegetation by distributing seeds across their grazing areas in their droppings, cycling a steady recolonization of native plants. Concentrated urine and feces near their burrows also return nutrients to the soil in a landscape where organic input is scarce. Patagonian maras also face competition from large, non-indigenous introduced mammals, such as European hares and sheep. Unfortunately, overgrazing by sheep has put Patagonian steppes at risk, with roughly one third of the land now converted to desert-like conditions. Sheep graze to bare ground, and researchers estimate that more than 90% of Patagonian soil has some degree of degradation.

The Patagonian mara is listed as Near Threatened on the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List, and Vulnerable in the Red Book of Mammals of Argentina. Historically, they ranged from north-central Argentina south almost to Tierra del Fuego. Localized extinctions, such as in Buenos Aires Province, have occurred due to hunting for their skins that are sold in local and international markets, as well as habitat destruction.

Luckily, the Patagonian mara can be found in at least 12 protected Argentinian national parks and reserves, including Patagonia National Park, which secure critical grassland and shrubland habitat. Conservationists, such as the Tompkins Conservation team, closely monitor mara dens to study their breeding, behavior, and habitat needs. This is particularly the case in regions like Patagonia Azul, a conservation initiative which spans over 124 miles (200 km) of coastal habitat. Hopefully, such actions combined with those to mitigate human pressures and competition from introduced mammalian species will help the Patagonian mara withstand the looming threat of endangerment and extinction.

Sienna Weinstein is a wildlife photographer, zoologist, and lifelong advocate for the conservation of wildlife across the globe. She earned her B.S. in Zoology from the University of Vermont, followed by a M.S. degree in Environmental Studies with a concentration in Conservation Biology from Antioch University New England. While earning her Bachelor’s degree, Sienna participated in a study abroad program in South Africa and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), taking part in fieldwork involving species abundance and diversity in the southern African ecosystem. She is also an official member of the Upsilon Tau chapter of the Beta Beta Beta National Biological Honor Society.

Deciding at the end of her academic career that she wanted to grow her natural creativity and hobby of photography into something more, Sienna dedicated herself to the field of wildlife conservation communication as a means to promote the conservation of wildlife. Her photography has been credited by organizations including The Nature Conservancy, Zoo New England, and the Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute. She was also an invited reviewer of an elephant ethology lesson plan for Picture Perfect STEM Lessons (May 2017) by NSTA Press. Along with writing for Bio4Climate, she is also a volunteer writer for the New England Primate Conservancy. In her free time, she enjoys playing video games, watching wildlife documentaries, photographing nature and wildlife, and posting her work on her LinkedIn profile. She hopes to create a more professional portfolio in the near future.

Sources

Featured Creature: Bison

A male plains bison (B. b. bison) at Yellowstone National Park. Image credit: Sienna Weinstein

What creature is the largest terrestrial animal in North America, an icon of the American prairie, and has one of the great conservation success stories of modern times?

The American Bison (Bison bison)

Featured Creature: Bison
A male plains bison (B. b. bison) at Yellowstone National Park. Image credit: Sienna Weinstein

In August of 2021, friends and I explored Yellowstone National Park, visiting iconic landmarks such as Old Faithful, the Grand Prismatic Spring, the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone, and Yellowstone Falls. While there, we saw numerous wildlife species, including the true icon of the American plains: the bison. In March 2026, while vacationing in the Silicon Valley area of California, I discovered a paddock with a small herd of plains bison open to visitors. I was surprised to discover a park 20% larger than New York’s Central Park filled with bison. I just had to take a look for myself.

Big, Burly, and Bushy Bovid

Quite simply, the bison is an impressive creature. Even its basic facts are astonishing. Bison are the largest terrestrial animal in North America. Mature bulls can be 5.5–6.5 feet high at the hump, and 9 to 12.5 feet in length. Cows (females) are typically smaller, at 5.0 feet high at their humps, and 7–10 feet. Their short, curved, black horns can grow up to 2 feet long, and they can weigh between 1,800–2,400 pounds.

Their formidable appearance is enhanced by several unique traits that make them easily identifiable. Their deep brown fur creates a long mane that covers their distinct hump and gives them a long beard. Their large heads contain a thick skull used not only for digging through snow to reach vegetation underneath, but to fight with one another by crashing their head or horns together.

Thanks in large part (pun intended!) to their size, Bison live between 15–20 years. Their massive presence makes them relatively safe from natural predators, but like most creatures, the weak, old, and young of the species can fall prey to large predators such as mountain lions, bears, or wolves.

A male plains bison at Yellowstone National Park. Image credit: Sienna Weinstein

The Bison Playbook: Life, Love, and Lunch on the Prairie

Bisons are communicators, especially during the breeding season (the rut). Grunts, snorts, and bellows advertise dominance and challenge rivals. Body language, including head tossing, ground pawing, and wallowing conveys aggression or social status. In breeding season, females release scents that indicate reproductive willingness.

Breeding typically occurs in mid- to late summer, with intense competition for female attention. Like humans, bison breed for approximately 9 months; spring is birthing season. Cows typically give birth to a single calf; twins, while extremely rare, are possible. Within hours, calves are mobile. Females are the primary caregivers, nursing for several months and protecting and guiding their young.

Herd animals, bison live in groups that facilitate social structure and provide protection from predators. They are typically composed of females, calves, and young males. They have relatively long lifespans for large mammals—often 10–20 years in the wild—and delayed maturity, with females breeding at around two to three years, and males competing successfully only when older and larger. Outside the breeding season, the older bulls may be solitary or form small bachelor groups. The herd structure provides protection from predators and facilitates social learning.

Bison exhibit seasonal movements rather than strict migrations, tracking food resources across the landscape. They are herbivores that primarily graze on grasses and sedges, though they will also consume forbs and shrubs when available, especially in winter or drought conditions. Their diet shifts seasonally depending on plant availability, and their grazing plays a key ecological role in shaping grassland ecosystems.

As a keystone, “ecosystem engineer” species for North American grasslands, bison play an important role in shaping landscapes. Their behavior and habits disproportionately influence their ecosystem by promoting plant diversity, aerating soil, and creating habitat for various plant and animal species.

Bison are selective grazers, favoring grasses over flowering plants (forbs), which increases plant diversity and stimulates new growth. They create shallow depressions in the dirt known as wallows for dust bathing, which later fill with water, creating small, temporary wetlands for insects and amphibians. Their massive hooves also help break up the soil, while their dung acts as a seed spreader and nitrogen-rich fertilizer, boosting soil health.

Their dung also incubates the eggs and larvae of numerous insects, and many bird species, including endangered species, in turn, feed on these insects and use fallen bison fur for nesting.

A historic photograph (c. 1892) of a massive pile of bison skulls at the Michigan Carbon Works facility, where massive quantities of bison bones were processed for commercial uses, like fertilizer and bone char. Image credit: Unknown photographer (Public Domain)

A Cultural Legend and an Epic Comeback Story

Long before the bison were scientifically studied, Indigenous peoples across North America recognized the ecological, spiritual, and practical purpose of the bison. For millennia, Native communities used every part of the animal: meat for food, hides for clothing and shelter, bones for tools, sinew for bindings, and the bison itself as a centerpiece of ceremony and prayer.

Even today, more than 60 tribes continue to weave their sacred “Brother Buffalo” into family life, spiritual practice, and food traditions.

Despite their significant cultural impact in Native American history, the bison were the victims of one of the most catastrophic wildlife collapses in recorded history.

In the nineteenth century as European settlers pushed westward, they brought with them railways, repeating rifles, and a booming international market for hides and bones. What followed was a slaughter of almost incomprehensible scale.

Bison populations once estimated at 30 to 60 million animals crashed to fewer than 1,000 by the 1890s. Some accounts suggest only 300 survived. The U.S. military actively encouraged the killing, recognizing that eliminating bison meant undermining the food supply, and resistance, of Plains tribes. Disease from cattle and competition with domestic livestock piled on. The species was, for all practical purposes, moments from extinction.

But at core, the bison’s survival story is a human story too. In the late 1860s, a handful of private citizens—ranchers, conservationists, and animal lovers acting largely without government support—began capturing and sheltering bison. These rescued animals became the foundational stock for nearly every herd alive today.

Today, about 31,000 bison are managed as wildlife across public lands in the United States and Canada, with another 360,000 in private herds. In 2016, the American bison was named the national mammal of the United States, a long overdue recognition.

Despite their incredible comeback, the story of the bison isn’t finished. They are still listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, and many scientists use the sobering phrase “ecologically extinct” to describe its status across most of its former range. The populations that remain are often too small, too fragmented, and too genetically isolated to play the full ecological role bison once performed.

Hybridization with cattle, disease, habitat loss, and inconsistent policy support all continue to cast long shadows. The work ahead of us is to expand connected habitats, support Indigenous-led conservation, protect genetically intact herds, and build the kind of durable policy commitment a national mammal deserves. Although humans previously pulled the bison back from the verge of extinction once, we must make sure we don’t leave it stranded on the edge.

Sienna Weinstein is a wildlife photographer, zoologist, and lifelong advocate for the conservation of wildlife across the globe. She earned her B.S. in Zoology from the University of Vermont, followed by a M.S. degree in Environmental Studies with a concentration in Conservation Biology from Antioch University New England. While earning her Bachelor’s degree, Sienna participated in a study abroad program in South Africa and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), taking part in fieldwork involving species abundance and diversity in the southern African ecosystem. She is also an official member of the Upsilon Tau chapter of the Beta Beta Beta National Biological Honor Society.

Deciding at the end of her academic career that she wanted to grow her natural creativity and hobby of photography into something more, Sienna dedicated herself to the field of wildlife conservation communication as a means to promote the conservation of wildlife. Her photography has been credited by organizations including The Nature Conservancy, Zoo New England, and the Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute. She was also an invited reviewer of an elephant ethology lesson plan for Picture Perfect STEM Lessons (May 2017) by NSTA Press. Along with writing for Bio4Climate, she is also a volunteer writer for the New England Primate Conservancy. In her free time, she enjoys playing video games, watching wildlife documentaries, photographing nature and wildlife, and posting her work on her LinkedIn profile. She hopes to create a more professional portfolio in the near future.

References

Featured Creature: Pangolin

A Temminck’s ground pangolin photographed in Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique
Image credit: Bart Wursten via iNaturalist (CC-BY-NC)

What animal is covered in scales made from the same material as our hair and nails, can extend its tongue as much as 16 inches (40 cm), and is sadly, the most trafficked in the world?

The pangolin (Order Pholidota)!

Featured Creature: Pangolin
A Temminck’s ground pangolin photographed in Gorongosa National Park, Mozambique
Image credit: Bart Wursten via iNaturalist (CC-BY-NC)

After recently attending an interactive webinar entitled “Back from the Brink: How the Giant Pangolin is Catalysing Forest Recovery” hosted by The Pangolin Project (TPP), this week’s author Sienna Weinstein felt it was a sacred duty of sorts to create a Featured Creature profile on this iconic symbol of endangered species. I send my thanks to speaker Ebony Ellen Escalona and TPP for allowing me to attend such an informative, incredible event, featuring phenomenal photographs, as well as data relating to the impact of conservation actions aimed at protecting the giant pangolin on the biodiversity and recovery of Kenya’s Nyekweri Forest.

An Armor-Plated, Awkward-Gaited, Awe-Inspiring Animal

Eight species found in Africa and Asia make up the members of a truly unique-looking mammal known as the pangolin. Also known as “scaly anteaters,” “walking pinecones,” and “artichokes with tails,” pangolins are the only mammal covered in tough, overlapping scales made of keratin—the same material that makes up rhino horns, and our hair and nails. Making up about 20 percent of a pangolin’s body weight, their scales become a defense shield when they curl into a ball of protection against predators such as lions, leopards, and tigers. As another predatory defense mechanism, Pangolins can emit a noxious-smelling chemical from anal glands, similar to a skunk’s spray. 

Pangolins have short legs with sharp claws, which they use not only for climbing, but for digging into ant and termite mounds. They lack teeth, but like anteaters, they possess a long, sticky tongue which in larger species, can extend up to 16 inches (40 cm) in order to lap up their favorite foodstuffs: termites, ants, and their larvae. Despite some similarities to anteaters, and possessing traits which may remind an observer of armadillos, one of the closest living relatives of pangolins is actually the mongoose! 

8 Species With Wildly Different Habits

Most pangolins are nocturnal, with the only exception being the long-tailed pangolin, also known as the African black-bellied pangolin. There are also differences regarding where exactly certain species of pangolins live and sleep. All pangolin species search for food and water at ground level, but some species are arboreal, living in tree hollows. Ground-dwelling pangolin species dig tunnels to a depth of 11 feet (3.5 m) for shelter. Some species of pangolin, such as the tree pangolin (also known as the white-bellied pangolin), are rather acrobatic–using their strong prehensile tails to hang from branches and strip away bark from the trunk, exposing the insect nests inside.

Pangolin species even differ in their appearance while walking! Some walk with their front claws bent under the foot pad (although they use the entire foot pad on their rear limbs). Ground-based pangolins stand on their hind legs for some behaviors, such as surveying their surroundings or reaching higher objects, and may walk a few steps bipedally. Arboreal pangolins use bipedal movement less frequently, in comparison, and typically, in brief and unstable strides on the ground when moving between trees. Truly, after all of these fascinating facts, you could think pangolins are an alien species!

A Keystone Species

Pangolins are considered a keystone species–one that plays a crucial role in maintaining the health and diversity of their native ecosystems, as their actions significantly impact the environment and other species. Through their consumption of ants, termites, and their larvae, pangolins prevent these insects from overwhelming local vegetation, protecting both forests and human crops. Their digging abilities help to turn over the soil, aerating it and cycling nutrients, which is vital for plant growth and ecosystem regeneration, especially after fires. Abandoned pangolin burrows also provide homes for other species. Overall, pangolins physically reshape their environment which supports overall biodiversity, impacting both plant and animal communities.   

A pair of endangered white-bellied pangolins rescued at a fish market in Epe, Nigeria by St. Mark, a veterinarian and conservationist
Image credit: Adedotun Ajibade via iNaturalist (CC-BY-NC)

A Tragic Tale of Trafficking

Pangolins are one of the, if not the, most trafficked animals in the world despite international bans on the trade. While their plated armor protects them from natural predators, it doesn’t protect against their biggest threat: humans. Pangolins are in high demand in China and Vietnam, as their scales are believed to have medicinal properties (such as curing cancer or asthma) in traditional medicine.

For scale (no pun intended), one study found that between August 2000 and July 2019, [the equivalent of] at least 895,000 pangolins were trafficked internationally.[1]

Pangolin meat is also considered a delicacy in these countries, and a sought-after bushmeat in West and Central Africa. Spiritual beliefs regarding the power of pangolins are not just limited to East Asia, however. Pangolins and their body parts are used for a wide variety of medicinal and “fortunetelling” purposes in parts of Africa as well, promising wealth and a suitable partner, along with other tempting promises.[2][3] Finally, habitat change through deforestation, land conversion for agriculture, and urbanization, all pose ongoing risks to pangolin survival.

What Can be Done?

In July 2014, the International Union for the Conservation of Nature Species Survival Commission (IUCN SSC) Pangolin Specialist Group launched a global action plan to conserve pangolins, dubbed “Scaling up Pangolin Conservation”. This action plan aims to improve all aspects of pangolin conservation, with an added emphasis on combating pangolin poaching and trafficking while educating communities on the species’ importance. Another potential approach to fighting not only pangolin trafficking, but general wildlife trafficking as well, consists of the strategy of “following the money” rather than “the animal”, which aims to disrupt smugglers’ profits by interrupting money flows. Combatting deforestation is also a must in order to ensure the pangolin’s survival. These are just a few mentions, but there are plenty of conservation actions needed should these truly unique and endearing little animals shape ecosystems, slurp up insects, and ultimately, survive, for decades to come.

Sienna Weinstein is a wildlife photographer, zoologist, and lifelong advocate for the conservation of wildlife across the globe. She earned her B.S. in Zoology from the University of Vermont, followed by a M.S. degree in Environmental Studies with a concentration in Conservation Biology from Antioch University New England. While earning her Bachelor’s degree, Sienna participated in a study abroad program in South Africa and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), taking part in fieldwork involving species abundance and diversity in the southern African ecosystem. She is also an official member of the Upsilon Tau chapter of the Beta Beta Beta National Biological Honor Society.

Deciding at the end of her academic career that she wanted to grow her natural creativity and hobby of photography into something more, Sienna dedicated herself to the field of wildlife conservation communication as a means to promote the conservation of wildlife. Her photography has been credited by organizations including The Nature Conservancy, Zoo New England, and the Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute. She was also an invited reviewer of an elephant ethology lesson plan for Picture Perfect STEM Lessons (May 2017) by NSTA Press. Along with writing for Bio4Climate, she is also a volunteer writer for the New England Primate Conservancy. In her free time, she enjoys playing video games, watching wildlife documentaries, photographing nature and wildlife, and posting her work on her LinkedIn profile. She hopes to create a more professional portfolio in the near future.

References:

• https://www.awf.org/wildlife-conservation/pangolin

• https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/news/press-releases/pangolins-decline-deadly-poaching-continues-red-list-experts-find-2019-12-10/

• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pangolin

• https://www.instagram.com/p/DMBAmugKCdU/

• https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/1746-4269-10-76

• https://news.mongabay.com/2019/12/three-pangolin-species-closer-to-extinction-iucn/

• https://planetwild.com/blog/pangolins

• https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC4300090/

• https://www.savepangolins.org/what-is-a-pangolin

• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/chapter/edited-volume/abs/pii/B9780128155073000162

• https://wildaid.org/wildaids-pangolin-priority-saving-the-most-trafficked-wild-mammal-in-the-world/

• https://www.worldwildlife.org/resources/facts/what-is-a-pangolin/

• https://www.zsl.org/what-we-do/species/pangolins

Images:

• https://www.inaturalist.org/photos/80983346

• https://www.inaturalist.org/observations/81231209

Featured Creature: Markhor

What animal is the largest of the wild goat species, whose name means “snake eater” in Persian, and is the national animal of Pakistan?

Featured Creature: Markhor
An adult male markhor at the Stone Zoo, Stoneham, Massachusetts
Image credit: Sienna Weinstein

Not Your Average Billy Goat

While interning at the Stone Zoo in Stoneham, Massachusetts, one of my duties involved filling up large black food bowls with a carefully measured mix of various feed for the zoo’s markhor. Prior to this internship, I had never heard of this fascinating species of bovid. The males were majestic with their artistically-curved horns and strikingly-bearded chin; so of course, my lunch break that day was spent photographing these amazing animals. This was no easy task, as these creatures had the habit of moving just out of sight around their enclosure as soon as my camera was properly set. However, persistence paid off, and I managed to snap a few photos during the brief moments when the markhors obliged me by standing still.

At 4.5-6.2 feet (1.37-1.89 m) long, with females typically weighing between 70 and 88 pounds (39.9 kg), with some weighing upwards of 100 (45.4 kg) or 110 lbs (49.9 kg) and males weighing up to 242 pounds (110 kg), the markhor is the largest of all wild goat species. Males release a pungent odor which has been described as stronger than that of domestic goats, and is used to  repel predators, mark territory, and as a natural cologne to attract females during the breeding season.

There are a few examples of sexual dimorphism, or noticeable physical differences between genders, among markhor. Besides their differences in size, males have a longer coat, especially around the chin, throat, chest, and shanks. Females are typically redder in color compared with males, have shorter hair and beards, and lack the majestic mane males display along their neck. Both genders also sport an impressive set of corkscrew-like horns, which measure up to 10 inches (0.25 m) for females, but can exceed an astonishing 5 feet (1.52 m) for males! 

What’s In a Name? A lot for the Markhor!

Found primarily in Pakistan, parts of Afghanistan, and the mountain ranges of the Himalayas and Karakoram, the markhor is the national animal of Pakistan. In Pakistan, the markhor is known as the “screw-horn”, or “screw-horned goat.” The Persian words “mar” and “khor” mean “snake” and “eater”, respectively, leading to the moniker “snake eater” or “snake killer”. This moniker is in reference to the ancient belief that the markhor would actively kill and consume snakes! (Which is not correct–markhors are herbivores.) This regional myth is believed to stem from the “snake-like” form of the male’s horns, curling and twisting like a snake, possibly leading ancient peoples of the area to associate them with these limbless reptiles.

Capra falconeri distribution,  Shackleton, 1997

Native to the mountainous regions of South and Central Asia, the markhor has evolved powerful and flexible hooves with hard, large outer edges and softer centers to grip the rocky surfaces of the terrain. Their hooves allow them to scale sheer cliffs and escape predators such as Eurasian lynx, wolves, and snow leopards.

The markhor plays a crucial role within its ecosystem by contributing to the health of their mountainous habitat. Keeping the native plants in check, the markhor controls the growth of certain vegetation through their eating habits, even climbing trees to reach the tastiest bits. Markhors spend more than half of their day grazing, about 12–14 hours on average! They mostly feed on grass in the warmer months, but upon the arrival of winter, they switch to other plants, including shrubs and twigs. This seasonal shift from grazing (eating grasses and low vegetation) to browsing (eating leaves, shrubs, and woody plants) helps balance plant communities at different heights and root structures, which supports more diverse insect, bird, and herbivore populations. Their feeding habits prevent overgrazing and help to promote biodiversity by allowing a range of plant life to flourish.

A female markhor and her kid at the Stone Zoo, Stoneham, Massachusetts
Image credit: Sienna Weinstein

An Icon Under Threat

Despite their impressive adaptations, generally majestic appearance, ecological importance, and status in Pakistan, the markhor faces numerous threats to survival. Listed as Near Threatened on the IUCN Red List, the markhor is hunted for their meat, skin, and horns. Across their range, overhunting and poaching have negatively impacted their populations. In addition, habitat degradation due to excessive wood cutting for fuel, as well as increased grazing by livestock leading to competition, and even hybridization between species, have further contributed to the markhor’s decline. Numerous conservation actions have been proposed via the markhor’s webpage on the IUCN Red List, and only time will tell whether potential collaboration between the locals of the region, government bodies, and conservationists can save this icon of the South and Central Asian mountains.

It required persistence and patience for my photos of the markhor to come to fruition before the individuals slipped away and out of sight. Similarly, persistence and patience must be employed in order to ensure that the species as a whole doesn’t slip away permanently.

Sienna Weinstein is a wildlife photographer, zoologist, and lifelong advocate for the conservation of wildlife across the globe. She earned her B.S. in Zoology from the University of Vermont, followed by a M.S. degree in Environmental Studies with a concentration in Conservation Biology from Antioch University New England. While earning her Bachelor’s degree, Sienna participated in a study abroad program in South Africa and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), taking part in fieldwork involving species abundance and diversity in the southern African ecosystem. She is also an official member of the Upsilon Tau chapter of the Beta Beta Beta National Biological Honor Society.

Deciding at the end of her academic career that she wanted to grow her natural creativity and hobby of photography into something more, Sienna dedicated herself to the field of wildlife conservation communication as a means to promote the conservation of wildlife. Her photography has been credited by organizations including The Nature Conservancy, Zoo New England, and the Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute. She was also an invited reviewer of an elephant ethology lesson plan for Picture Perfect STEM Lessons (May 2017) by NSTA Press. Along with writing for Bio4Climate, she is also a volunteer writer for the New England Primate Conservancy. In her free time, she enjoys playing video games, watching wildlife documentaries, photographing nature and wildlife, and posting her work on her LinkedIn profile. She hopes to create a more professional portfolio in the near future.

Dig Deeper


Featured Creature: Giraffes

What animal, despite having the same number of vertebrae, has a neck longer than the average human, has spot patterns as unique between individuals as our fingerprints, and despite their gentle appearance, can kill lions with a karate-style kick!?

A tower of Reticulated giraffes (G. reticulata)
Image credit: Bird Explorers via iNaturalist (CC-BY-NC)

Some might say this is quite the… tall order for my very first Featured Creature profile! (Hold the applause!)

One of my earliest memories regarding these unique icons of the African savanna was when I was around five years old. My parents and I were visiting the Southwick Zoo in Mendon, Massachusetts, when we came upon the giraffe enclosure. One of these quiet, lanky creatures lowered its head across the fence bordering the enclosure, and licked my dad on the face with its looooong, black tongue! Once the laughter had died down, a flood of questions rushed into my head:

Why DOES the giraffe have such a long neck?

How do they sleep at night?

And what’s the deal with those black tongues?

A Tall-Walking, Awkwardly-Galloping African Animal

Their scattered range in sub-Saharan Africa extends from Chad in the north to South Africa in the south, and from Niger in the west to Somalia in the east. Within this range, giraffes typically live in savannahs and open woodlands, where their food sources include leaves, fruits, and flowers of woody plants. Giraffes primarily consume material of the acacia species, which they browse at heights most other ground-based herbivores can’t reach. Fully-grown giraffes stand at 14-19 feet (4.3-5.7 m) tall, with males taller than females. The average weight is 2,628 pounds (1,192 kg) for an adult male, while an adult female weighs on average 1,825 pounds (828 kg).

A giraffe’s front legs tend to be longer than the hind legs, and males have proportionally longer front legs than females. This trait gives them better support when swinging their necks during fights over females.

Giraffes have only two gaits: walking and galloping. When galloping, the hind legs move around the front legs before the latter move forward. The movements of the head and neck provide balance and control momentum while galloping. Despite their size, and their arguably cumbersome gallop, giraffes can reach a sprint speed of up to 37 miles per hour (60 km/h), and can sustain 31 miles per hour (50 km/h) for up to 1.2 miles (2 km).

Herd of giraffes running in Tanzania, Africa

When it’s not eating or galavanting across the savanna, a giraffe rests by lying with its body on top of its folded legs. When you’re 18 feet tall, some things are easier said than done. To lie down is something of a tedious balancing act. The giraffe first kneels on its front legs, then lowers the rest of its body. To get back up, it first gets on its front knees and positions its backside on top of its hind legs. Then, it pulls the backside upwards, and the front legs stand straight up again. At each stage, the individual swings its head for balance. To drink water from a low source such as a waterhole, a giraffe will either spread its front legs or bend its knees. Studies involving captive giraffes found they sleep intermittently up to 4.6 hours per day, and needing as little as 30 minutes a day in the wild. The studies also recorded that giraffes usually sleep lying down; however, “standing sleeps” have been recorded, particularly in older individuals.

Cameleopard

The term “cameleopard” is an archaic English portmanteau for the giraffe, which derives from “camel” and “leopard”, referring to its camel-like shape and leopard-like coloration. Giraffes are not closely related to either camels or leopards. Rather, they are just one of two members of the family Giraffidae, the other being the okapi. Giraffes are the tallest ruminants (cud-chewers) and are in the order Artiodactyla, or “even-toed ungulates”.

A giraffe’s coat contains cream or white-colored hair, covered in dark blotches or patches which can be brown, chestnut, orange, or nearly black. Scientists theorize the coat pattern serves as camouflage within the light and shade patterns of the savannah woodlands. And just like our fingerprints, every giraffe has a unique coat pattern!

The tongue is black and about 18 inches (45 cm) long, able to grasp foliage and delicately pick off leaves. Biologists thinks that the tongue’s coloration protects it against sunburn, given the large amount of time it spends in the fresh air, poking and prodding for something to eat. Acacia giraffes are known for having thorny branches, and the giraffe has a flexible, hairy upper lip to protect against the sharp prickles.

Both genders have prominent horn-like structures called ossicones, which can reach 5.3 inches (13.5 cm), and are used in male-to-male combat. These ossicones offer a reliable way to age and sex a giraffe: the ossicones of females and young are thin and display tufts of hair on top, whereas those of adult males tend to be bald and knobbed on top.

An elderly adult male Masai giraffe at the Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Massachusetts
Image credit: Sienna Weinstein

There is still some debate over just why the giraffe evolved such a long neck. The possible theories include the “necks-for-sex” hypothesis, in which evolution of long necks was driven by competition among males, who duke it out in “necking” battles over females, versus the high nutritional needs for (pregnant and lactating) females. A 2024 study by Pennsylvania State University found that both were essentially acceptable! Check out the graphic below for a good visualization. 

A graphic summarizing the evolution of the giraffe’s body based on gender needs
Image credit: Penn State University, CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0

A Flagship AND Keystone Species

Alongside other noteworthy African savanna species, such as elephants and rhinoceroses, giraffes are considered a flagship species, well-known organisms that represent ecosystems, used to raise awareness and support for conservation, and helping to protect the habitats in which they’re found. As one of the many creatures that generate public interest and support for various conservation efforts in habitats around the world, giraffes have a significant role.

Giraffes, like elephants and rhinos, are also classified as a keystone species–one that plays a crucial role in maintaining the health and diversity of their native ecosystems, as their actions significantly impact the environment and other species. What is it that giraffes do that impacts their local ecosystems and environment? By browsing vegetation high up in the trees, they open up areas around the bases of trees to promote the growth of other plants, creating microhabitats for other species. In addition, through their dung and urine, they help distribute nutrients throughout their habitat. Some acacia seedlings don’t even sprout and grow until they’ve passed through a giraffe’s digestive system! By protecting giraffes, we also contribute to protecting other plant and animal species of the African savanna and open woodlands!

The Life We Share

The woodlands and grasslands where giraffes live are shaped in part by those long necks and unique feeding habits. As they browse high in the canopy, they open up space for other plants and animals to thrive. These ecosystems aren’t something we built, they’re something we’re lucky to witness. And if we have a role to play, maybe it’s simply to make sure our presence doesn’t undo the work that nature is already doing so well.

Sienna Weinstein is a wildlife photographer, zoologist, and lifelong advocate for the conservation of wildlife across the globe. She earned her B.S. in Zoology from the University of Vermont, followed by a M.S. degree in Environmental Studies with a concentration in Conservation Biology from Antioch University New England. While earning her Bachelor’s degree, Sienna participated in a study abroad program in South Africa and Eswatini (formerly Swaziland), taking part in fieldwork involving species abundance and diversity in the southern African ecosystem. She is also an official member of the Upsilon Tau chapter of the Beta Beta Beta National Biological Honor Society. 

Deciding at the end of her academic career that she wanted to grow her natural creativity and hobby of photography into something more, Sienna dedicated herself to the field of wildlife conservation communication as a means to promote the conservation of wildlife. Her photography has been credited by organizations including The Nature Conservancy, Zoo New England, and the Smithsonian’s National Zoo and Conservation Biology Institute. She was also an invited reviewer of an elephant ethology lesson plan for Picture Perfect STEM Lessons (May 2017) by NSTA Press. Along with writing for Bio4Climate, she is also a volunteer writer for the New England Primate Conservancy. In her free time, she enjoys playing video games, watching wildlife documentaries, photographing nature and wildlife, and posting her work on her LinkedIn profile. She hopes to create a more professional portfolio in the near future.

Dig Deeper


Featured Creature: Pika

What creature is small and round 
and with a shrill sound 
it nests in the ground, 
where it hopes not to be found?

The Pika! (Ochotona)

Pika (Pexels by Александр Велигура)

The American Pika has a short, stocky body with large round ears and short legs. Don’t be fooled by this adorable ball of fur and ears. The pika is a hardy creature, one of the only mammals, in fact, that is able to survive its entire life in alpine terrain. The intensity of alpine environments makes it difficult for animals to thrive. The pika is believed to have originated in Asia, where 28 out of the 30 species of the lagomorph still reside. Fossil remains of ancient pika date back to over 15 million years ago, and are thought to have traveled from Asia to North America in the Miocene epoch, across the Bering land bridge.

Pika (Pexels by Steve Burcham)

Lagomorphs, not rodents

As a guinea pig owner, the pika first drew my attention due to its resemblance to my beloved pets. Despite its guinea-pig and mouse-like appearance, however, the pika is not, in fact, a rodent. Instead, the pika is a lagomorph, sharing the title with rabbits and hares. The pika is the smallest lagomorph, with most weighing between 125 and 200 grams, and measuring about 15 cm in length. Unlike rodents, lagomorphs have a second, smaller pair of incisors located directly behind the first. In addition to their second pair of front teeth, lagomorphs produce two separate kinds of feces, drops that are both solid and round, or black soft pellets. The soft feces contain up to five times as many vitamins as the solid droppings, and after their production are re-consumed to utilize their nutritional value. The purpose of this process is to allow the animal to access the nutrients that its body was unable to absorb upon its first digestion, an important adaptation for life in their lives in an unforgiving alpine environment.

Where do they live?

Pika squeaking (Wikimedia Commons by Vickie J Anderson) 

The pika reside in two very distinct and separate places, depending on the specific species. While some live in rocky, alpine terrains, others prefer to burrow in meadows. The American pika inhabits the former, on the treeless, rocky slopes of mountains, found in mountainous areas of the Sierra Nevada and the Rocky Mountains in both Canada and the United States. These pikas are social creatures, and gather to live in colonies together. These colonies provide the pikas with protection, as at any sign of danger they will squeak a warning call to their colony, a sound which is represented in the following video. Although they live together, pikas are territorial of their own den. Each pika’s den is built into the crevasse of the rocky environment, and the pika will also emit territorial cries to keep their fellow pikas away.

The pika’s breeding season is in the spring, when their aggression and territorial feelings reach a low. This change in disposition allows the creatures to mate with their den’s closet neighbor. Pika gestation lasts 30 days, and litters of one to four are born blind and hairless, to be cared for by their mother. The young pikas grow quickly, and reach adulthood in just 40 to 50 days, and adult pikas have an average lifespan of about three years. Mother pikas generally birth two litters of babies each summer, but the first litter tends to have a higher survival rate.

Pika (Pixabay by Tim Ulama) 

The American pika varies from brown to black in fur color, resembling the rocky terrain that it inhabits. Their thick coat of fur, which keeps them warm in the cold winter months, thins during the summer, allowing some relief from the summer heat. Pikas are active year-round, and do not hibernate. Instead, the pika seeks shelter within the cracks and crevices of their rocky terrain, remaining warm through the insulation of heavy snow. In addition, the American Pika makes sure to take precautions in order to prepare for the tough winter months, when grasses and wildflowers are sparse.

Winter is Coming

Pika (Pexels by Александр Велигура)

To prepare for harsh winter months, the pika gathers its favorite foods, grasses, weeds, and wildflowers, carrying its harvest in its mouth before depositing it into a hidden pile. This collection process is called haying, and the pikas store their clippings in crevices and under boulders, where they dry out over time. Haying allows the dry grasses to be stored for long periods of time in the pika’s den without growing moldy, perfect for saving a snack for the winter. During the summer, haying becomes the pikas primary activity, and each individual haystack can grow to be quite large in size.

American Pika with a mouthful of flowers (Wikimedia Commons by Frédéric Dulude-de Broin)

A little sweet and sour, pikas also participate in kleptoparasitism, stealing precious resources from already existing haystacks. They reach peak aggression in the summer months, desperate to defend their dens and haystacks from thieving neighbors. And for good reason–because they don’t really hibernate, the pika’s winter survival hinges on its successful haying season. In order to survive the winter, one pika needs approximately 30 pounds of plant material stored. That’s a lot! Each pika may have multiple haystacks, spread out throughout its individual territory. Usually, they focus their energy on one specific haystack, which over time can grow to be two feet in height and two feet in diameter.

American Pika haystacking (Wikimedia Commons by Jane Shelby Richardson)

Up, up, up

The pika has made its home among the rugged, wind-scoured peaks of Asia and North America’s mountain ranges, thriving in an environment too harsh for most creatures. But something is changing.

As summers grow hotter and snowpacks thin out, the pika’s alpine world is shrinking. The tiny mammals, perfectly adapted to the cold, are being driven higher and higher up the slopes, chasing the last pockets of cool, livable habitat. A pika cannot sweat or pant to cool itself down; instead, when temperatures climb above 78°F, it faces a simple but devastating choice—find shade or perish.

Historically, pikas have lived at elevations as low as 5,700 feet, but now, scientists are tracking their ascent to over 8,300 feet, seeking relief from the relentless heat. But mountains have their limits. What happens when the pika reaches the summit, and there is nowhere left to climb?

We’re already starting to find out. In the Great Basin region of the western United States, seven out of twenty-five pika populations have vanished, unable to adapt fast enough to their rapidly changing circumstances. Without deep winter snows to insulate their rocky dens, some freeze in the cold months, while others struggle to gather enough food as their growing season shifts unpredictably.

The pika’s journey upward is a silent alarm, a warning from one of nature’s smallest mountaineers.

Helena Venzke-Kondo is a student at Smith College pursuing psychology, education, and environmental studies. She is particularly interested in conversation psychology and the reciprocal relationship between people and nature. Helena is passionate about understanding how communities are impacted by climate change and what motivates people towards environmental action. In her free time, she loves to crochet, garden, drink tea, and tend to her houseplants. 

Sources and Further Reading:

Featured Creature: Iberian Hare

What athletic creature can reach speeds of 45mph and cool itself down with large ears – all in a 2.5 kg frame? 

The Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis)!

Featured Creature: Iberian Hare
Image Credit: Juan Lacruz (CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons)

Five times the size of New York’s Central Park, Casa de Campo (literally, “country house”) outside Madrid is filled with rustic stone pine trees – emblematic of the Mediterranean and easily identified by their bare trunks and full, blooming crown of pine needles. It’s sometimes called the “umbrella pine” for good reason. Above, within, around, and beneath these trees, nearly 200 species of vertebrates live. 

Out for a run through the park, my feet pounded the dry dirt along a gradual decline for the last mile. Here, the earthen trail dipped down steeply and cut through dense brush. As I dropped in, I almost landed squarely on top of what appeared to be a large rabbit. To my surprise, it didn’t dart away; I think I was more startled than it was. You see, I’d set out on that run in part to find inspiration, follow my curiosity, and think of a creature I wanted to learn more about. I’m not such a strong believer in fate, but this rabbit (or so I thought at the time) had certainly made its case. 

I lingered and watched it mill around the brush. The more I watched, the more I wondered about its story. 

A Keystone Species On The Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian hare (Lepus granatensis) is endemic, or native, to the entire peninsula that contains Spain, Portugal, and the enclave nation of Andorra. Throughout that region they can be found in diverse habitats including dry Mediterranean scrublands, woodlands, and agricultural fields. It thrives in regions with ample vegetation that offer cover and food, adapting well to the peninsula’s varied landscapes, which range from dry, hot areas to slightly cooler, temperate zones. In some respects, Casa de Campo itself is a microcosm of these environments.

Lepus granatensis is a keystone species, meaning it occupies an essential link in the ecosystem’s food chain and plays a particularly outsized role in balancing its environment. It survives on a diet of grasses, leaves, and shoots, playing a crucial role in seed dispersal and vegetation control – and is a source of prey for a range of birds and mammals. The hare’s diet and grazing habits help control plant overgrowth and support a diverse plant community, evidenced in Casa de Campo by the more than 600,000 plant specimens found in the park alone.

The open ground this hare navigates every day is patrolled by animals who want to eat her– lynx, coyote, and red foxes from the land and eagles, owls, hawks, and red kites from the air. To get from point A to point B she must be fast, and she is. Powerful hind legs propel Lepus granatensis to top sprinting speeds of 45-50 miles-per-hour, making her one of the fastest land animals on the peninsula. It’s a pace that puts my nine-minute mile to shame, and is an essential adaptation to survive here, far from the relative safety of dense forest or lush meadow. 

       Casa de Campo, a 4,257 acre park on the edge of Madrid, boasts more that 600,000 plant specimens and nearly 200 species of vertebrates.
Image by author, who was apparently far too busy taking pictures instead of running while on his run.

Nature’s Air Conditioning

When I first started coming to Madrid, adapting to the sparing or non-existent use of air conditioning in the summer was an adventure, to say the least. I can do without the Chipotle and readily available iced coffee, but having been raised on A/C since I was born, it took some getting used to. Unlike me in this regard, the hare I ran into that day is well suited to her environment. It is one of large, open landscapes dotted with thick low lying brush, olive trees, holm oaks, and pines. Rainfall is infrequent, and summers are scorched by the strong Spanish sun. 

Her ears are larger and thinner than those of a rabbit. They often stand upright. When backlit, one can easily make out a network of veins and arteries, traversing the ear like rivers and streams through a watershed.

An unidentified leporid (family of rabbits and hares) displaying the network of arteries and veins that help transfer heat from warm blood to the surrounding air, keeping her cool.
Image by author.

Therein lies her secret. Hares don’t perspire like you and me– nor do they pant like a canine. Instead, they depend on their large, thin-skinned ears to act as thermostat and air conditioner. No, they don’t flap them like a paper fan. Instead, they help her cool down by getting hotter.

When the hare needs to release excess heat, she can expand that network of blood vessels in her ears, allowing her to redirect hot blood away from her body and through the thin skin of her ears. Because her ears have a large surface area putting those veins in closer contact to the ambient air, this increased blood flow facilitates the dissipation of heat into the ever so slightly cooler surrounding air, helping her regulate her body temperature effectively.

We see this strategy of counter-current thermoregulation in nature again and again, in the ears of elephants and deer, and a variation in the snow and ice-bound paws of the arctic fox.

Thermal imaging demonstrating how heat retention and dissipation in rabbits is concentrated through the ears. Image credit: V. Redialli, et al., 2008
This thermal video clearly illustrates the
heat disparity between a rabbit’s ears, and the rest of its body.

Confronting a Microscopic Threat

Before I continued my run, I fired off a few observations to a zoologist friend of mine for help with the species identification. Among them was what we suspected to be a bad case of conjunctivitis in both eyes; significant levels of swelling and discharge were present. 

While neither of us can offer a certain diagnosis for this particular hare, further research has indicated that something more serious is afoot.

In 1952, France was well into its post-war reconstruction, buoyed along by a growing economy and population. As the country was just beginning a new chapter in its story, so too was recently retired physician Dr. Paul-Félix Armand-Delille. In his new-found free time, Armand-Delille took up great interest in the pristine care and management of the grounds of his estate, Château Maillebois, in the department of Eure-et-Loir, a little more than 100km west of Paris.

Troubled by the presence of wild European rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) on his property, Armand-Delille read about the success Australian farmers had found using strains of the myxoma virus to control invasive rabbit species on that continent (they’d been imported by an Englishman decades earlier). Using his old medical connections, Armand-Delille secured some myxoma virus for himself and intentionally infected and released two of the rabbits on his property, confident that they would not be able to leave it. 

Armand-Delille’s Château Maillebois today.
Image credit: Marcengel (CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons)

In just one year, nearly half of all wild rabbits in France would be dead, consumed by myxomatosis, the disease caused by the myxoma virus. In the decades since, the disease has ravaged Oryctolagus cuniculus populations across Europe, shrinking their numbers to just a fraction of what they were at mid-century. The sudden, near overnight disappearance of the European rabbit also crippled populations of its specialist predator, the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). With the lynx unable to replace the rabbit in its diet, the species was pushed to the brink of extinction. Recent conservation efforts have helped recover and stabilize populations, but Lynx pardinus remains a “vulnerable” species. 

Fortunately, over just the last few decades some populations of the European rabbit have resurged, having developed strong resistance to the virus.

But viruses are always trying, though usually failing, to jump from one host species to another. As species migrate and habitats converge, a virus gets more and more chances to make the leap.

As early as 2018, myxoma succeeded in making the leap from Oryctolagus cuniculus to Lepus granatensis. The virus that causes myxomatosis has wreaked havoc on Iberian hare populations on the peninsula; a species that did not have the advantage of decades and decades of exposure to build up resistance. Myxomatosis can cause fever, lesions, lethargy, and, it turns out, severe swelling and discharge around the eyes. Sometimes these symptoms can subside. But for the Iberian hare the virus is remarkably lethal, with a mean mortality rate of about 70%. Data indicates that since 2018, the virus has decimated Iberian hare populations. This break in the chain has serious implications for both the vegetation the hare keeps in check and the predators that depend on the hare as prey – implications that we are only beginning to understand.

The impact of myxomatosis outbreaks on Iberian hare populations after the 2018 species jump event. Image credit: Cardoso B, et al.

As a warming world continues to heat Iberia, the delicately balanced ecosystem Lepus granatensis inhabits is increasingly jeopardized. More intense storms flood the parched terrain while stifling heat and wildfires threaten vegetation. Lepus granatensis is likely to migrate north in search of more tolerable environments that can sustain the plant life it depends on for both food and cover. The further north the hare goes, the more its new habitat will overlap with the European rabbit and other species. The future of large populations of Lepus granatensis in the face of this disease and increasing climate fallout is uncertain. Since returning to Casa de Campo, I’ve noticed the swelling and discharge in other leporids as well.

Lepus granatensis
Image credit: JoseVi More Díaz (CC-BY-NC-ND)

Complexity

This isn’t the story I set out to tell. When I stumbled on the hare, I expected to write an essay about reconnecting with nature as I embarked on my own new journey as part of the Bio4Climate team. 

Transitioning from a place of hope and curiosity, to understanding the more dire situation faced by both the hare I crossed paths with and the species as a whole was deflating. Yet, that’s all part of nature’s complexity; we don’t always get the happy endings we want. To some extent, these aren’t our stories to write. But even that conclusion is built around a false premise, because none of these stories are over. 

The recent outbreak has prompted renewed research interest into threats facing hare populations. And even if we distill the bigger story down to this specific hare, I don’t know what will become of her. No, the odds aren’t great. But in the time that I watched her she simply carried on, foraging away in the brush. It’s a small thing to observe, but I think there’s hope in that— in identifying the struggle and the resilience of living things, and channeling that understanding to shape a better world. 

It’s hard not to think about the web of plants, animals, ecosystems, and microscopic organisms that have been set on a collision course with each other as they seek to rebalance themselves. And in the middle of it all is us. 

After watching the hare for a few minutes, I continued my run. The trail led out of the brush and opened up into a large, flat field, sparingly dotted with those umbrella pines. At that moment, a bird I later identified in iNaturalist as a red kite (Milvus milvus) dropped out of one of the trees, skimmed the earth, and climbed into the sky. 

Brendan began his career teaching conservation education programs at the Columbus Zoo and Aquarium. He is interested in how the intersection of informal education, mass communications and marketing can be retooled to drive relatable, accessible climate action. While he loves all ecosystems equally, he is admittedly partial to those in the alpine.  

Sources and Further Reading:

Articles

Scientific Papers

Featured Creature: Chevrotain

What creature is the world’s smallest ungulate?

The chevrotain!

Featured Creature: Chevrotain
Photo by Bjørn Christian Tørrissen (CC BY-SA 3.0 via Wikimedia Commons)

The chevrotain is an incredibly unique animal native to India and Southeast Asia. This creature is just 12 inches tall and about 29 inches long – the size of a rabbit. It weighs approximately 4-11 pounds and sports a reddish-chestnut brown coat with white markings on its chest. The chevrotain is the world’s smallest hoofed mammal. The chevrotain is also called the mouse-deer, but is not related to either a mouse or deer. Entirely a species of its own, the chevrotain is a one-of-a-kind creature.

There are ten species of chevrotain, nine of which reside in Asia while one – the water chevrotain – is native to Africa, spanning from Southern Benin to the Democratic Republic of Congo. This particular species lives near rivers and lakes as its name implies. When threatened, the water chevrotain will submerge itself underwater for up to four minutes to escape a predator. All chevrotains are very small with the tiniest being the lesser Malay chevrotain at 4 pounds and the largest being the water chevrotain at 33 pounds.

Photo by P. Jeganathan (CC BY-SA 4.0 via Wikimedia Commons)

Diet

These miniature ungulates are herbivores and feed on vegetation like grasses, leaves, roots, flowers, and fruit. The chevrotain is a ruminant and has a 4 chambered stomach similar to that of a cow’s. This stomach helps digest fibrous plant material and extract nutrients from plant matter. Chevrotains inhabit jungles and forage for low hanging and fallen fruit as well as ground plants that are easy to reach due to their short stature. 

Fangs

Despite looking like mini-deer, chevrotains do not have antlers. Instead, they have elongated incisors. In males, these teeth protrude beyond the mouth like tusks which are used when fighting. Chevrotains also  use their long fangs to expose roots for consumption.

Photo by Vassil (via Wikimedia Commons)

Jungle Ghosts

Chevrotains are known for being solitary, quiet, and difficult to find amongst dense forests. One species in particular has remained hidden from scientists for nearly 30 years – until recently. The silver-backed chevrotain, native to Vietnam, had not been seen for decades, despite camera traps and excursions to find the creature. But in 2017, that all changed. A camera trap captured the elusive silver-backed chevrotain, the first sighting since 1990. Still, so little is known about this species that the IUCN has assigned the status of “data deficient”. 

Conservation ensures that no species is lost to history and reinforces the importance of a diverse ecosystem where every organism has a vital role to play. Even when all hope seems lost, life finds a way.

Treading quietly away for now,
Joely

Joely Hart is a wildlife enthusiast writing to inspire curiosity about Earth’s creatures. She holds a Bachelor’s degree in creative writing from the University of Central Florida and has a special interest in obscure, lesser-known species.

Sources and Further Reading:
https://a-z-animals.com/animals/mouse-deer-chevrotain
https://www.khaosok.com/national-park/mouse-deer
https://www.ultimateungulate.com/Artiodactyla/Hyemoschus_aquaticus.html
https://factanimal.com/chevrotain/
https://www.npr.org/2019/11/11/778312670/silver-backed-chevrotain-with-fangs-and-hooves-photographed-in-wild-for-first-ti

Featured Creature: Aardvark

What unique animal could be a cross between a rabbit, a pig, an opossum, and an anteater?

The aardvark!

Featured Creature: Aardvark
Photo by Kelly Abram from iNaturalist

Meet the aardvark – a one-of-a-kind mammal native only to sub-Saharan Africa.

The aardvark has an unusual hodge-podge mix of features including rabbit-like ears, a pig-like snout, an opossum-like tail, and a long, sticky anteater-like tongue. This creature has large and formidable claws used for digging and defense. Weighing in at 115 – 180 pounds, the aardvark is much heftier than it looks. 

Aardvarks inhabit the savannas, arid grasslands, and bushlands of sub-Saharan Africa where there is plenty of their favorite prey, ants and termites. They are solitary and do not socialize with others unless for mating or raising young. They live for about 18 years in the wild and approximately 25 years in captivity.

The aardvark is famous for being the first noun in the English dictionary. The animal goes by many names including Cape anteater and ant bear, but its colloquial moniker, aardvark, is Afrikaans for “earth pig”.

Photo by Louise Joubert from Wikimedia Commons

Odd Relatives

Although the aardvark is an eater of ants, it is not an anteater. Understandably, the comparison comes from its similar appearance and nearly identical diet to the anteater, which leads people to assume they are the same animal. However, the aardvark is its own species entirely, and in fact, it is more closely related to elephants than to anteaters. 

Unique Diet

Aardvarks are insectivores that eat ants and termites. They use their keen sense of smell to locate ant nests and termite mounds over great distances. Aardvarks have the highest number of olfactory turbinate bones of any mammal on the planet. An aardvark has about 9 -11 of these specialized bones which help support the olfactory bulb in the brain, where smells are processed. This larger-than-average olfactory system allows the aardvark to track such tiny creatures like ants and termites from far away. They have been observed swinging their heads back and forth close to the ground, much like a metal detector, to pick up a scent. 

Once an aardvark locates a termite mound, it uses its claws to break open the cement-hard structure. Its tongue, coated in sticky saliva, slurps up the exposed insects in seconds. The highly adapted tongue of an aardvark can be up to 1 foot long. Over the course of a night, a single aardvark eats over 45,000 termites. Amazingly, all of this is done without chewing. 

While aardvarks are classified as insectivores, they make one exception in their diet for a very unique fruit, the aardvark cucumber. This African melon looks similar to a cantaloupe but is grown completely underground. Aardvarks easily dig up the fruit and eat its watery, seed-filled interior. Once the fruit is digested, the seeds are dispersed by the aardvarks that cover their dung in dirt, effectively planting these seeds in the soil with a natural fertilizer. This symbiotic relationship helps propagate the aardvark cucumber, whose existence is entirely dependent upon the aardvark.

Photo by Nick Helme from Wikimedia Commons

Cultural Significance

The aardvark is regarded as a symbol of resilience in some African cultures due to its unrelenting bravery in tearing down termite mounds. The aardvark has very thick skin which helps avoid injury from hundreds of termite and ant bites. Because of their nocturnal habits and solitary nature, aardvarks are not a common sight during the day. It is said that anyone who is lucky enough to see one is blessed. 

Earth Engineer

Aardvarks are adept earth-movers known to create specialized burrows to live in. These burrows provide shelter away from the sun and from predators. Its powerful claws are specially adapted to move massive amounts of dirt in minutes, which helps the aardvark excavate multiple chambers within the den.  

Some burrows can be up to 10 feet deep and over 20 feet long. There are multiple entrances to the same burrow so the aardvark has a chance to escape if a predator poses a threat. Aardvarks have been observed to be very cautious creatures and practice an unusual ritual before exiting their abode. The aardvark stands at the edge of its burrow and uses its excellent sense of smell to detect any nearby predators. It listens for danger and emerges slowly. The aardvark then jumps a few times, pauses, and heads out for the night. Because aardvarks are primarily nocturnal, they don’t have much need for vivid sight and are colorblind. Their long ears and nose do the seeing for them. 

The physiology of these soil architects may strike some as strange, but it serves a purpose. The odd, arched silhouette of the aardvark is caused by its hind legs being longer than its front, which gives them a stronger stance when digging. This adaptation, combined with their formidable claws and muscular forelimbs, allows the aardvark to dig a hole 2-feet deep in just 30 seconds – much faster than a human with a shovel.

Photo by Louise Jobert from Wikimedia Commons

Ecological Importance

When aardvarks have depleted most of their territory’s termite mounds or ant nests, they must move on to new hunting grounds. Their abandoned burrows don’t stay empty for long and are occupied by a variety of species. Hyenas, wilddogs, warthogs, civets, and porcupines make their homes in aardvark burrows. The aardvark has an incredible impact on its environment by sculpting the very landscape itself and providing shelter for other creatures.

If you want to learn more about how aardvark burrows support other animals, check out this article documenting the one of the first observations of predators and prey cohabitating in the same burrow.

Burrowing away now,
Joely

Joely Hart is a wildlife enthusiast writing to inspire curiosity about Earth’s creatures. She holds a Bachelor’s degree in creative writing from the University of Central Florida and has a special interest in obscure, lesser-known species.

Sources and Further Reading:
https://www.miamiherald.com/news/nation-world/world/article274890346.html
https://www.thoughtco.com/10-facts-about-aardvarks-4129429
https://a-z-animals.com/animals/aardvark/
https://animalia.bio/aardvark#facts
https://www.britannica.com/animal/aardvark
https://carnegiemnh.org/a-is-for-aardvark/
https://nationalmuseumpublications.co.za/aardvarks-orycteropus-afer-and-their-symbolism-in-african-culture/

Featured Creature: Prairie Dog

Have you ever heard of a squirrel that barks?

Let me introduce you to the Prairie Dog. 

Featured Creature: Prairie Dog
Cephas (Wikimedia Commons)

Sometimes, when walking alone in the high grasslands of the Western United States, you may feel as if you are being watched. 

My first encounter with prairie dogs in the wild occurred as I stood in an empty prairie just outside of Badlands National Park in South Dakota. As I meandered along, minding my own business, dozens of furry creatures with beady little eyes appeared, propped themselves up on their hind legs, and began to follow my every step. Prairie dogs are adorable, it is true, but when you see a dozen spread out, standing upright, watching you intently, it can be a bit disconcerting.

They were, however, no threat, and weren’t eyeballing me just to judge me. A prairie dog standing on his hind legs – “periscoping” as it is known – is simply keeping watch for predators. And their distinctive bark? It may sound like “yip,” but it is actually a sophisticated language developed over thousands of years that is still not fully understood by scientists. 

Prairie dog barks convey everything about a predator’s size, speed, and location. According to a study at the University of Northern Arizona led by Con Slobodchikoff, Ph.D (see video linked below) pitch, speed, and timbre were all altered in a consistent manner corresponding to the species of predator and the characteristics of each. Certain “yips” could even be interpreted to represent nouns (the threat is “human”), verbs (the “human” is moving toward us), and adjectives (the “human” is wearing an ugly yellow shirt). So now that I think about it, I guess they were judging me, and I am not sure how I feel about that. But still, those are some impressive squirrels.

Wait, did you say squirrels?

Yes.

Squirrels. From the Sciuridae family. Prairie dogs are marmots (or ground squirrels) that bark like a dog, prompting Lewis and Clark to label them “barking squirrels,” which may lack points for creativity but is at least more accurate than calling them “dogs.” Prairie dogs, in fact, have no connection to dogs whatsoever.

Amaury Laporte (CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons)

There are five major species of prairie dog, who all live in North America at elevations between 2,000 and 10,000 feet. The Black-Tailed prairie dog covers the largest territory, filling an extensive region from Montana to Texas. Gunnison’s prairie dogs occupy the southwest near the Four Corners region. White-Tailed prairie dogs reside in Wyoming, Utah, and Colorado. Mexican and Utah prairie dogs belong to Mexico and Utah, respectively, and both are considered endangered.

As you may have observed, prairie dogs live in areas prone to harsh extremes of weather. To protect themselves, they dig extensive burrow networks with multiple entrances, designed to create ventilation, route flood water into empty chambers deep underground, and keep watch for predators. Their burrows connect underground, organized into sections called “coteries,” each of which contains a single-family unit responsible for the maintenance and protection of their area. Multiple coteries become “towns” of startling size and complexity. According to the National Park Service, the largest prairie dog town on record covered 25,000 square miles, bigger than the state of West Virginia!

That IS an impressive squirrel.

Indeed.

Amaury Laporte (CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons)

Over the years, however, the prairie dog’s range has shrunk, scientists estimate, by as much as 99%, largely because of agriculture. Farmers and ranchers tend to regard prairie dogs as a nuisance, as they sometimes eat crops (they are mostly herbivores) and their holes create a hazard for livestock. They will bulldoze their towns or conduct contest kills to remove them, which has had devastating impacts.

Experts consider prairie dogs to be a keystone species. Their loss affects hundreds of other species who rely on them for food or use their burrows for shelter. They are instrumental in recharging groundwater, regulating soil erosion, and maintaining the soil’s level of production. Prairie dog decline, in fact, eventually leads to desertification of grassland environments.

So, an impressive AND important squirrel?

Yes, and the restoration of prairie dog habitats could be a crucial step in mitigating the effects of climate change.

If you’ve caught prairie dog fever, dive deeper into the resources below. And to learn more about Prairie Dog language, check out this fascinating video:

Hoping one day to converse with my personal prairie dog army,

Mike

Mike Conway is a part-time freelance writer who lives with his wife, kids, and dog Smudge (pictured) in Northern Virginia. 

Sources:
https://animals.net/prairie-dog/
Prairie dog – Wikipedia
https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/what-do-about-prairie-dogs
Prairie Dog Decline Reduces the Supply of Ecosystem Services and Leads to Desertification of Semiarid Grasslands | PLOS ONE
Prairie Dogs | National Geographic
Prairie Dogs: Pipsqueaks of the Prairie (U.S. National Park Service) (nps.gov)

Featured Creature: Black Drongo

What small but fearless songbird can astonish with its aerial acrobatics and is always ready to battle much bigger birds for dominance?

The Black Drongo!

Featured Creature: Black Drongo
Photo by Viswaprem Anbarasapandian on Unsplash

A songbird with fearless attitude, the black drongo, or Dicrurus macrocercus, can be found across Southeast Asia. I first encountered this amazing avian when visiting India, where drongos could be seen across the treetops of Delhi and Kolkata. Their variety of calls and distinctive two-pronged tail caught my attention, and the more I learned about these creatures, the more I came to respect their cleverness and adaptability. 

Some consider drongos to be a symbol of good fortune. This may be related to their ecological role controlling the population of certain insects that can prove to be major pests in agricultural areas. Whether due to their beauty, their singing talents, or contributions to ecological balance, black drongos’ deserve our respect and high regard.

Photo by Vinoth Chandar (CC BY 2.0, via Wikimedia Commons)

Strength in numbers

One of the most amazing characteristics of these songbirds is their brazen behavior. Though they have an average size of about 11 inches (or 28 cm), black drongos don’t shy away from conflict with much bigger neighbors. 

During nesting season, when birds of prey pose a threat to drongos’ nests, drongos have been known to band together and fight back. They employ the technique of ‘mobbing’ the predators, gathering in numbers to harass the threat and drive it out of the area. In certain cases, drongos have taken to this behavior year-round, preemptively “cleaning up the neighborhood” before bigger birds have a chance to locate and disrupt their nests. 

Naturally, other small birds have come to appreciate this service, and species like bulbuls, orioles, doves, and pigeons tend to nest near drongos to enjoy their protection. One beautiful display of mutualism has been recorded in which a red-vented bulbul fed the chicks of a black drongo. Talk about community building!

Photo by Viswaprem Anbarasapandian on Unsplash

As drongos’ forked tails may suggest, these birds are built to be incredibly aerodynamic. They often dart through the air in pursuit of their insect prey, and have been observed on daring escapades through fiery skies, as farmers using seasonal burns on their agricultural fields cause insects in those habitats to flee. The drongos happily browse the feast in these dramatic events, and in general they’re not too picky about how they get their meal. 

Black drongos will fly near tree branches to disturb insects and pick them off, or forage for grubs and caterpillars on the ground. They’ll eat cicadas, grasshoppers, ants, wasps, beetles, dragonflies, and more insects, and will even occasionally consume bigger prey like small birds, reptiles, bats, and fish. Living along forest edges, farmland, meadows, wetlands, and fields, black drongos benefit by having a wide diet that can suit their circumstances.

Photo by Maya Dutta

Clever callers

In addition to their flying skills, drongos use their vocal talents to rustle up a good meal. These birds are far from one-note. They have tremendous range in the calls they produce, and have become quite adept in the art of mimicry. Drongos sometimes sound alarms, causing other creatures to flee and abandon their food, leaving it up for grabs.  

Fork-tailed drongos (the black drongo’s African cousins) have been observed tricking meerkats in this way, and you can watch their wily ways on BBC Earth:

Black drongos of Asia do the same, imitating the call of the shikra (a small raptor) to scare myna birds away from their meals, and swooping in to enjoy the spoils. Perhaps they aren’t the best neighbors after all… 

Drongos’ variety of calls shows just how complex their communication can be. In order to mate, nest, forage, feed, mob, and play, the drongo requires a wide vocabulary, and while its most common sound is a two note ‘tee-hee’, drongos are capable of many more songs and sounds to express themselves. Listen in here:

Drongos demonstrate how using your voice and your talents cleverly can help you adapt to any number of circumstances. On that note, I’ll fly off now!

Maya

Maya Dutta is an environmental advocate and ecosystem restorer working to spread understanding on the key role of biodiversity in shaping the climate and the water, carbon, nutrient and energy cycles we rely on. She is passionate about climate change adaptation and mitigation and the ways that community-led ecosystem restoration can fight global climate change while improving the livelihood and equity of human communities. Having grown up in New York City and lived in cities all her life, Maya is interested in creating more natural infrastructure, biodiversity, and access to nature and ecological connection in urban areas.

Sources:
https://www.tribuneindia.com/news/schools/drongo-the-kotwal-among-birds-190571
https://jlrexplore.com/explore/focus/drongos-of-karnataka
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_drongo
https://ebird.org/species/bladro1

Featured Creature: Nilgai

Which creature is the largest Asian antelope, considered sacred to some and pest to others?

The Nilgai!

Featured Creature: Nilgai
Photo by Hemant Goyal from Pexels

This fascinating four-legged friend could be described by a whole host of leading questions, depending on which notable features we want to emphasize. Elizabeth Cary Mungall’s Exotic Animal Field Guide introduced the nilgai with the question “What animal looks like the combination of a horse and a cow with the beard of a turkey and short devil’s horns?”

Personally, I find the nilgai much cuter than that combination might suggest, but it may all be in the eye of the beholder. The name ‘nilgai’ translates to ‘blue cow’, but the nilgai is really most closely related to other antelopes within the bovine family Bovidae. Mature males do indeed have a blue tint to their coat, while calves and mature females remain tawny brown in color.

Photo by Clicker Babu from Unsplash

As their physiology suggests, nilgai are browsers that roam in small herds, with a strong running and climbing ability. I encountered them in the biodiversity parks of New Delhi and Gurgaon, where efforts to rewild the landscape to its original dry deciduous forest make for ideal stomping grounds for the nilgai. 

Prolific Browsers

Indigenous to the Indian subcontinent, the nilgai is at home in savanna and thin woodland, and tends to avoid dense forest. Instead, they roam through open woods, where they have room to browse, feeding on grasses and trees alike. They’re considered mixed feeders for that reason, and will adjust their diet according to the landscape. Nilgai are adept eaters, standing on their hind legs to reach trees’ fruits and flowers and relying on their impressive stature (which ranges from 3 to 5 feet, or 1 to 1.5 m, at the shoulder) to get what they need.

Photo from Wikipedia
(By Akkida, CC BY 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=34508948)

Like other large herbivores, nilgai play an important role in nutrient cycling and maintaining the ecosystems they’re a part of. In this case, that looks like feeding on shrubs and trees to keep woodlands relatively open, as well as dispersing seeds through their dung. One 1994 study noted the ecological value of the nilgai in ravines lining the Yamuna River, where the nitrogen contained in their fecal matter can make a large difference in soil quality, particularly in hot summer months. 

These creatures actually defecate strategically, creating dung piles that are thought to mark territory between dominant males. As a clever evasion tactic, these are often created at crossroads in paths through forest or savanna-scape, so that predators may not be able to trace the nilgai’s next steps so easily. 

Photo from Wikipedia (By Bernard Gagnon – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=30634949)

Food webs for changing times

The natural predators of the nilgai once included the Bengal tiger and Asiatic lion, as well as leopards, Indian wolves, striped hyena, and dholes (or Indian wild dogs) which sometimes prey on juveniles. However, as deforestation, habitat loss and fragmentation, and development pressures change the face of the subcontinent, the ecological role of the nilgai has become more complicated. While their association with cows, a sacred animal in Hinduism, has widely prevented nilgai from being killed by humans, the relationship between people and nilgai is becoming more contentious. 

Where nilgai lack their traditional habitat to browse, they turn to plundering agricultural fields, frustrating the farmers who work so hard to cultivate these crops. Farmers in many Indian states thus consider them pests, and the state of Bihar has now classified them as ‘vermin’ and allowed them to be culled.  

Photo from Wikipedia (By Jon Connell – https://www.flickr.com/photos/ciamabue/4570527773/in/photostream/, CC BY 2.0)

There’s no place like… Texas?  

Strangely enough, when I got inspired by my nilgai sightings in India and decided to learn more about these Asian antelopes, one of the first search results I encountered involved nilgai populations here in the US. Specifically in Texas, an introduction of nilgai in the 1920 and 30s has spawned a population of feral roamers. Accounts say that nilgai were originally brought to the North King Ranch both for conservation and for exotic game hunting, somewhat distinct priorities that regardless led to the same result, a Texas population that now booms at over 30,000 individuals.

In this locale, nilgai largely graze grasses and crops, as well as scrub and oak forests. Here hunters have no qualms about killing them, but some animal rights groups object, and popular opinion remains divided on whether such treatment is cruelty or, well, fair game. 

These days, one concern is that a large nilgai population contributes to the spread of the cattle fever tick. Another concern remains about these grazers acting as ‘pests’ on agricultural land. 

Fundamentally there is a question that lies at the heart of the nilgai’s fate, both at home in India and Bangladesh, where natural predators and original habitat have steeply declined, and abroad, where they weren’t a part of the original ecosystem at all: what do you do when an animal’s ecological role is out of balance? 

In my view, there are no easy answers, but a familiar pattern we seem to uncover – that healthy ecosystems, where intact, harbor more complexity than we can recreate or give them credit for. Little by little, I hope we can support their conservation and resurgence. 

By Maya Dutta

Maya Dutta is an environmental advocate and ecosystem restorer working to spread understanding on the key role of biodiversity in shaping the climate and the water, carbon, nutrient and energy cycles we rely on. She is passionate about climate change adaptation and mitigation and the ways that community-led ecosystem restoration can fight global climate change while improving the livelihood and equity of human communities. She is the Assistant Director of Regenerative Projects at Bio4Climate.

Sources:
https://animalia.bio/nilgai
https://www.thedailybeast.com/nilgai-the-chimeric-beast-overrunning-texas-and-spreading-disease
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilgai
https://www.britannica.com/animal/nilgai

Featured Creature: European Hamster

"European hamster at a city park" by Ivan Radic is licensed under CC BY 2.0.

Which keystone species creates intricate burrows, is aggressive towards its own kind, and hibernates from October to May? 

The European Hamster!

Featured Creature: European Hamster
European hamster at a city park
(Photo by Ivan Radic licensed under CC BY 2.0)

Did you know that there are multiple species of hamster in the wild? I didn’t know this until recently, when I stumbled upon a BBC Earth video of a European Hamster foraging for food in a graveyard. Having only ever been exposed to domesticated hamsters, I was fascinated by this creature and eager to learn more about it. 

Burrow into the Basics

The scientific name for the European Hamster is Cricetus cricetus. These furry creatures have a small, ovalish body covered in reddish-brown fur, with the exception of white fur on their face and the side of their body. Quite small in size, European Hamsters typically weigh about 12 – 15 ounces and are about 8-9 inches in length (just a bit bigger than the average human hand!). 

In terms of geography, this solitary species is native to Central and Eastern Europe, hence its name. They inhabit steppe and grassland regions that are lush with greenery on relatively flat land. 

A Life Well-Lived

The European Hamster has a unique mating process. During the mating season between March and May, females engage in a ritual in which they run in a figure-8 pattern to attract their mate. Males, in turn, will chase the females during this ritual while making a special mating call. 

After successful mating with several males, a female’s pregnancy will last about 18 – 21 days and results in about 3 – 7 hamster pups. Females are the primary caregivers to their pups, as males are relatively hands-off in the upbringing of their young. They typically nurse the pups for about a month, or 30 days. The European Hamster has an impressive lifespan among small rodents – it can live up to 8 whole years!

Settling in for Winter

Hibernation is an important part of the European Hamster’s key to a long life. They typically rest from mid-October to mid-March in a deep (2 meter) underground burrow. During hibernation, they wake up about every week or so to get a quick snack before falling back into rest. 

Their burrows play a vital role in the European Hamster’s daily life. These burrows exist deep in the ground and have a variety of chambers for specific uses, like food storage. 

European Hamster burrow
(Photo by Bas Kers (NL) is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 2.0)

With a healthy appetite, the European hamster loves to eat grasses, seeds, grains, roots, fruits, legumes, and occasionally some insects or insect larvae. They might often be seen spending the day packing their roomy cheeks full of food to bring back to their food storage chamber to prepare for hibernation. 

A Temperamental Creature

European Hamsters aren’t the most friendly of creatures, possibly least of all towards their own kind. They mark their territory with secretions, and when they come into contact with another member of their species, they may act aggressively. They have also been known to attack humans when approached by farmers, who may view the species as harmful to their agricultural operations. 

European Hamsters deserve particular recognition for their role as a keystone species. They play a crucial role in dispersing seeds throughout the European grassland and steppe ecosystems that they inhabit. They also contribute to the food web by primarily consuming producers (i.e., plants & plant products), and by serving as prey to a host of predators including birds, foxes, weasels, dogs, cats, badgers, and more. 

One Keystone Species Affects the Entire Ecosystem

Unfortunately, this important keystone species is currently critically endangered due to a number of factors. According to Animal Diversity Web, “European hamsters have been hunted or sold for their pelts. They also have been used for cancer research, due to their exposure to pesticides and air pollution in urban settings.”

Luckily, there are rehabilitation and reintroduction efforts underway to protect this valuable keystone species and the ecosystem it helps to support. You can learn more about one such project in Khotyn National Park, Ukraine by clicking here: 

For all keystone species, 
Abby

Abby Abrahamson is a writer, activist, and educator with a passion for community-led biodiversity and climate solutions. As a graduate of sociology and environmental studies, she appreciates the intersectionality of our challenges of climate justice, conservation, and regeneration. Now a Teacher Naturalist with Mass Audubon, Abby formerly worked with Bio4Climate on communications, college outreach, and community engagement. She has also been involved in Jane Goodall’s Roots and Shoots, an organization that helps empower young people to work on environmental, conservation, and humanitarian issues.

Sources:
https://www.animalia.bio/european-hamster
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_hamster
https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Cricetus_cricetus
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/common-hamster-named-critically-endangered-europe

Featured Creature: Banded Mongoose

Photo from pixabay.com

Which creature enjoys social gatherings, is well adapted to its habitat, and can be very altruistic?

Featured Creature: Banded Mongoose
Photo from pixabay.com

The Banded Mongoose is a small mammal with a mass of approximately ≤2kg (or 4 lbs) found in (and indigenous to) various parts of Africa. While most other mongoose species live a solitary life, the banded mongoose is gregarious living in groups of approximately 5-40 individuals with at least one breeding male and female. They are named so due to the black stripes across their greyish-brown dorsal area (back) while their ventral area (chest and stomach) is lighter than other parts. This species is commonly known for its ability and behavior to attack, kill, and eat snakes – even venomous ones! 

Photo from commons.wikimedia.org

Adaptation to their environment

Banded mongooses are mostly found occupying covered areas like savannahs, open forests, and grasslands for vigilance. They sleep and nurture their young in dens such as abandoned termite mounds, buildings, and even under bridges. By possessing short muscular limbs with strong claws, banded mongooses can dig to find food and get creative at creating and modifying their dens. Because they live in large groups as compared with other mongooses, their burrows have many entrances to ensure their escape during an attack and for sufficient ventilation. Despite having such nice dens, they are not sedentary to the specific den but rather frequently move from place to place every few days to avoid and distract their enemies. However, they can return to their favorite den after a certain time. In addition, their body color allows them to blend with several habitats and hence ensures their safety.

Photo by Dušan veverkolog on Unsplash

Like other animals, banded mongoose adults,  especially males, are responsible for the safety of the whole group. Unlike many other animals, all adult members are fully responsible for raising their young who are born synchronously (all matured female members get pregnant and give birth at the same time). Having muscular limbs, banded mongooses can stand by using their hind limbs just like their cousins (meerkats) to ensure the area is safe. 

These animals also exhibit altruistic behaviours whereby adults are ready to give up their life for the safety of the group. They were recorded standing and fighting against lions, birds of prey, and other animals, and while doing so other group members evacuated from the area. Additionally, since they are small in size, they move in groups and close to each other so that they may be seen as one large animal. And as they move, the young ones are located in the middle and the adult ones around them.

Diet and behavioral adaptation

The banded mongoose is a meso-carnivore with a diet consisting primarily of invertebrates such as beetles, millipedes, scorpions and others. Nevertheless, they also eat vertebrates such as snakes, rats, amphibians, mice, young birds and eggs. And in the case of plants, they eat wild fruits (if they’re available). Normally, they move together while locating the food area but each member finds and eats its food. In urban areas, they are mostly found around damp areas during their mealtime because there is plenty of food there, and then they rest in the covered areas mostly at noon to avoid the day heat.

On other hand, banded mongooses cope with food problems by using different symbiotic relationships with other animals like birds, warthogs (watch the video below to see this in action), elephants, and others (see more from attached YouTube links in the References). In this way, they become more successful in foraging and thriving in nature. They also use other animals, especially birds, to be alerted of various threats around them.

Though they are social animals, banded mongooses also exhibit inter-group territorial behaviour and their territories are marked with various scents, especially urine. Not only are territories scent-marked but so are group members. This is well seen when new pups are taken out for their first foraging and adults urinate over the young ones. When two different groups meet, they normally fight and the winning group takes over the area that they fought for. However, during the fight, some mature males and females from each group may mate.

Communication

Banded mongooses mainly communicate through sounds and scents. They possess various sound pitches, each with a different meaning and message to other members. They also developed anal and cheek glands which assist in the marking of their territory and young. They have a well-developed sense of smell, which they use to detect food.

Threats

Currently, banded mongooses are not faced with any critical danger and are listed as a“Least Concern” species due to their large population number and distribution in most parts of Africa. But this does not mean they don’t need any concern at all. I found some of them died in road accidents, and for those in urban areas most people used to attack them. Remember, even extinct species were once “Least Concern” and where are they now? Therefore, let’s give attention to every species in the world before their situation becomes worse.

Lesson to humanity

From such a small animal, we may think that there is nothing to gain, but there is a lot to learn from it. Banded mongooses, as said before, are ready to sacrifice their safety and even life just to make sure their groups are safe. This act shows love for others, something which nowadays very few people can do to others regardless of whether the one in need is their relative or not. I also like the way they raise their family. All group members are fully responsible for that, and if people were to do the same, there would be no street children and other problems also could be solved.

This lesson shows how we can learn from banded mongooses, but it is not just this species that we can learn things from. The whole of nature provides us with enough knowledge, materials and services that are essential for our survival. Therefore, let’s love nature and put our individual or organizational efforts into conserving it to ensure its natural existence lasts and more generations to come will continue to gain what we are gaining now. 

On behalf of mongooses everywhere, thank you!

Vitalis